ZERIHUN ABEBE DEMISSIE (M.Sc)

ZERIHUN ABEBE DEMISSIE (M.Sc)

ZERIHUN ABEBE DEMISSIE (M.Sc)

helb dispursement period for first time undergraduate   - REGENERATION OF TWO TROPICAL MAIZE GENOTYPES (Zea mays L.) FROM MATURE EMBRYOS THROUGH CALLUS INITIATION USING SPLIT SEED TECHNIQUE

Plant regeneration from single or few cells is a prerequisite for effective selection of transformed cells and to minimize the event of chimeras during transformation. This can only be achieved if plants are regenerated through callus initiation. To date immature embryos have been widely used as explants for maize (Zea mays L.) plant regeneration through callus initiation and transformation work. However, the utilization of immature embryos has been hampered by their strictly limited suitable stage for culture, 12-17 days after pollination. In contrast mature seeds are ubiquitous. Therefore, use of mature embryos as an explant can significantly reduce the time required to generate immature embryos and hence the overall time required to regenerate maize plant. However, tropical maize genotypes and mature embryos have been considered as the most recalcitrant for tissue culture work. Consequently tropical maize line regeneration using mature embryos has not been reported so far. The purpose of this study was to regenerate two tropical maize lines, CML 216 and Katumani, from mature embryo. Splitting maize seeds longitudinally exposes three different tissues of the embryo simultaneously: scutellum, coleoptile-ring and shoot apical meristem. In the present study up to 92.6% germination and 0% contamination rate was attained for mature embryos harvested directly from open field or screen house by soaking sterilized seeds in 1% NaOCl solution for 2-3 hours. Seeds were germinated on MS media supplemented with 2 mg l-1 2,4-D. Both the amount and frequency of callus produced by splitting mature seeds early (one day after germination) was found to be low, 43.3 % and 57.4 % for Katumani and CML 216 genotypes respectively, as compared to 66.3 % and 75.7% for Katumani and CML 216 respectively when splitting was done late (3-5 days after germination). The maximum average callus induction recorded was 90% for CML 216, 80% for Katumani and 34.3% for A188. When 2,4-D was combined with lower levels of Kinetin ( cytokinin) both the amount and frequency of callus induction was reduced to 52.5% for CML 216 and Katumani and to 34.3% for A188. The media used was LS salts and B5 vitamins supplemented with 900 mg l-1, 250 mg l-1 and 3-4 mg l-1 of 2,4-D. The average production of Type II and Type I callus was 75.6% and 62.3% respectively. The media used was LS salts and B5 vitamins supplemented with 900 mg l-1, 250 mg l-1 and 2 mg l-1 of 2,4-D. The frequency of regenerable calli produced was 21.14% for CML 216 and 16.51% for Katumani. The number of shoots regenerated per callus induced from single split seed ranged from 1-5. The media used was LS salts and B5 vitamins supplemented with 900 mg l-1, 250 mg l-1 and 4 mg l-1 of BAP and 2 mg l-1 of Kinetin. Plants were acclimatized in pots contained pit moss. This regeneration protocol gives an alternative explant source for maize researchers of the tropics in transgenic maize production to tackle different production constraints.

Supervisors:
Prof Jesse Machuka
Dr Wondyifraw Teferra



NG'ANGA PETER NJOROGE  (M.P.H.E.)

MALARIA VECTOR CONTROL PRACTICES IN MWEA DIVISION, KIRINYAGA DISTRICT, CENTRAL KENYA

Malaria continues to be an important vector-borne disease in Africa South of Sahara where the conventional treatment strategies have proved ineffective due rapid spread of drug resistance. This has generated renewed global interest in vector control with an aim of minimizing man- vector contact both at household and community level. A cross-sectional ethnographic household survey was conducted in Mwea Division, Central Kenya in April 2005. The main goal of the study was to explore and determine currently used malaria vector control practices as well as determine the level of community participation in malaria vector control. Four villages were purposefully selected to represent socio-economic and geographical diversity within the study area. A total of 400 households were randomly selected from the four villages. Both semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussions were used to gather information on community's biomedical knowledge of the disease including the role of the vector in malaria transmission. Results of the study showed that malaria was perceived to be a major public health problem in the study area by 93% of respondents and the role of mosquitoes in malaria transmission was recognized by 95% of respondents (n=368). However, some respondents perceived that malaria could also be caused by other factors like being rained on (13%) with significant difference between the four villages (2=24.336; df 3; P=0.000). Other perceived causes were wet and cold conditions (11%), taking of raw foods like mangoes and fermented porridge (5%) with significant variation between gender (2 =19.24; df 3; P=0.000). Personal protection methods applied included; use of treated mosquito nets (57%), with significant variations among: different occupational groups (2=7.955; df 3; P=0.047) and education level of respondent (2 =33.622; df 6; P=0.000). Other methods reported were: untreated bednets (35%), coils (21%), traditional methods (8%), insecticide sprays (6%), and skin repellents (2%). Main reason for using bednets was protection against mosquito bites (95%) while protection against malaria became second (54%). Source reduction methods reported at household level included clearing of bushes/vegetations (45.7%), refuse/waste disposal, (26.9%) and filling of breeding sites (13.6%). Reported environmental management practices at community level included levelling and draining areas of stagnant water (4.3%), clearing vegetations in water canals (0.3%) and destruction of discarded water receptacles (1.1%). Despite malaria being a major public health problem in the area, 39% of respondents (n=365) could not apply some of the known vector control methods. Reasons for regular non-use ranged from unaffordability (67.7%), side effects (26.6%), lack of effectiveness (21.5%), and lack time (3.5%). Methods said to be unaffordable included use of mosquito nets (91.7%) and insecticide sprays (50%), while untreated mosquito nets were ineffective (59%). Results from this study underscored the need for understanding the existing local needs during design and implemention of vector control interventions at community level. The non-scientific explanations given for malaria aetiology may have important implications on the treatment, prevention and control of malaria in irrigated ecosystems, where vectors of malaria are abundant and disease transmission stable.

Supervisors:
Prof  Ephantus  W. Kabiru,           
Prof.  Violet  Kimani,           
Dr  Josephat  Shililu,   



PETER M. GITHIGARO (M.SC), zoological sciences

CONSISTENCY OF STOOLS AS AN INDICATOR OF TYPE OF INTESTINAL PARASITES  HARBOURED BY PATIENTS WITH ABDOMINAL PAIN AT KENYATTA NATIONAL HOSPITAL, NAIROBI, KENYA.

Abdominal pain is a common problem reported to clinicians for various ailments. Hospital records in Kenya show that high percentage of patients suffers from abdominal pain. Among the causes of abdominal pain are intestinal parasites. Intestinal parasites include protozoa and helminthes living in the intestine of animals and human. They are among the most common infections in developing countries. About 3.5 billion people worldwide are infected with intestinal parasites without considering those with abdominal pain. There are many people living with intestinal parasites without knowing. The impact of these parasites on public health has been under estimated, although they cause considerable morbidity and mortality. The main objective of this study was to determine whether consistency of stool could be used as an indicator of type of intestinal parasites causing abdominal pain in a patient. Patients being investigated for intestinal parasitic infections in the clinical laboratory were interviewed and a sample size of 400 patients suffering from abdominal pain selected. Stools of patients were macroscopically examined to determine their consistency; both direct saline and formal-ether concentration methods were used to identify parasitic agents. Stool specimens with eggs of Taenia species were stained and eggs differentiated to species using modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain technique. Harada-Mori culture technique was done on positive stools with hookworm looking like eggs in order to differentiate the worm species. Data was analyzed, and association among stool consistency, age groups, sex and intestinal parasites were tested using chi-square. Of the 400 patients 164(42.0%) had acute abdominal pain, 181(45.3%) had chronic abdominal pain and 55(13.8%) had recurrent abdominal pain. The consistency of stools from those patients were 218(54.5%) formed, 95(23.8%) soft, 78(19.5%) loose and 9(2.3%) watery. Stools from 79(19.75%) patients had inclusions; those with pus cells were 44(11.0%), mucus 33(8.25%), blood 23(5.75%) and yeast cells 15(3.75%). The results show 27.5% of patients complaining of abdominal pain had intestinal parasitic infections. The most prevalent helminth was hookworm (2.5%) while the most prevalent protozoan was Blastocystis hominis (10.75%). The study show stools from patients complaining of acute abdominal pain had higher amount of water than stools from patients with ether chronic or recurrent abdominal pain (χ²=47.3, df=6, P=0.000). Patient's complains of different duration of abdominal pain was not related to presence of intestinal parasitic agents in stools (χ²=72.95, df=64, P=0.207). There was no association between intestinal parasitic infections and consistency of stools (χ²=0.000, df=3, P=1.000). Patients of 36-40 years age group had the highest number 50% of parasitic infection cases than any other age group (χ²=38.52, df=10, P<0.001). The findings from this study provide a general awareness among KNH practicing physicians the need of laboratory diagnosis of stools in confirming clinical findings when treating patients with abdominal pain.

Supervisors:
Prof. Ephantus W. Kabiru
Prof. Hannington O. Pamba


GITHIRI M. NGECHI (M.Sc.) Hospitality and Tourism

THE FACTORS INFLUENCING FOOD CONTAMINATION BY SLAMONELLA, ESCHERICHIA COLI AND STAPHYLKOCOCCUS SPECIES AMONG FOOD HANDLERS AT KENYATTA NATIONAL HOSPITAL, KENYA

Food borne diseases caused by Staphylococcal, E. coli and Salmonella food poisoning have continued to be a major public health problem worldwide. In Kenya, Staphylococcal, E. coli and Salmonella food poisoning have been responsible for outbreaks of diseases in rural and urban areas. Improper food handling practices among food handlers have been implicated as a vehicle of transferring Staphylococcus, E. coli and Salmonella pathogen. Much work has not been carried out in Kenya to determine the relationship between food handling and the occurrence of food contaminants. This formed the basis of the study. The main objective of this study was to establish food handling practices as a sauce of Salmonella, E. coli and Staphylococcus pathogens in fried chicken resulting from lack of knowledge on proper food handling and poor hygiene practices of food handlers. The study adopted a descriptive survey and analytical procedure was carried out in the four kitchens of Kenyatta National Hospital. A total of 125 key informants participated in the study. This included 20 catering officers, 5 store men, 5 public health officers and 95 food production and service staff. Simple random sampling method was used in selecting catering officers, food production and service staff. All store men and public health officers working in the kitchens were included in the study. Closed ended questionnaire were used in testing the knowledge level on hygienic practices among food handlers. Observation checklists were used in capturing the non verbal occurrences related to food handling practices. Representative samples of fried chicken were collected from four kitchens (Canteen, Rahimtualla, Sister Mess and Private wing) for microbiological analysis. Hand and surface swabs were also collected from all kitchens in identifying any presence of Staphylococcus and E. coli. Data collected was analysed using descriptive method and statistical package of social sciences (SPSS) computer software. The descriptive analysis was presented using tables and figures. Chi-square (x2) at 95% confidence level was used to test significance association of variables. One way Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significance differences of means of different kitchens. The findings revealed that more (65.4%) than half of the food handlers were knowledgeable in appropriate food handling practices. There was slight difference however between scores in aptitude (knowledge level) items (65.4%) and the actual implementation of the same (observed hygienic practices 64.3%). The overall results of food analysis indicated that no pathogen was isolated in the food immediately after cooking. Salmonella was not also isolated in food after cooking and before service. However, the presence of Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli was noted in some food samples. There was a significant relationship between washing of hands before handling food and visiting toilet and the presence of pathogens in food. Based on these findings adequate and continuing training of every food handler in food hygiene was recommended. Other recommendations included Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point system in all kitchens, routine medical examination of food handlers, routine sampling of cooked food, construction of wash hand basins adjacent to the toilets and sensitization of caterers on close monitoring of production and service staff.

Supervisors:
Prof. Paul Okemo
Dr. Judith Kimiywe



ANNE MANYARA (M.P.H.E)

KNOWLEDGE OF HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN SELECTED CHILDREN HOMES IN NAIROBI, KENYA

There is a growing recognition of adolescents' sexual and reproductive health. The increasing numbers of adolescents aged 15-19 years infected with HIV and living with AIDS pose a considerable challenge to public health if the prevalence is to be reduced. Sexual activity among adolescents in Kenya is high and is associated with biological, social and economic factors such as early puberty, economic hardships, urbanization, schooling and break down of traditional structures that regulated young peoples' sexual behaviour. Those adolescents in children's homes are in particular of more concern because they will be reintegrated in the society eventually. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the knowledge on health risks associated with sexual behaviour among adolescents in selected children's homes in Nairobi. A cross-sectional study involving 230 respondents selected randomly, aged 13-19 years were identified within their various homes. Homes were clustered according to divisions and seven homes fitting the inclusion criteria were selected. The study results showed that sexual debut among respondents in children's homes was at a mean age of 11.36 years, with a mean number of 2.17 sexual partners. There was a significant relationship between knowledge on health risks and sexual behaviour (χ2= 69.026; df= 1; p< 0.001) among the respondents. A considerable number of respondents (22.6%) had engaged in sexual intercourse by the time of data collection. Results showed that average respondents (43.5%) did not recommend the distribution of condoms to young people. Level of knowledge of health risks among respondents in the children's homes was high (83.9%) with a mean score of 36.7. The media (97.8%), poverty (93.9%) and peer pressure (89.6%) significantly influenced sexual behaviour among respondents. Poverty or need for money (47%) as well as lack of self control (79.1%) influenced respondents to continue engaging in unprotected sex despite knowledge of health risks. Lastly, despite being governed by rules and regulations, there were rare occurrences of STIs and unwanted pregnancies reported in the homes. Conclusions made were that mean age of sexual debut among respondents in children's homes was low (11.36 years), while number of sexual partners were higher than those generally reported in other studies. Knowledge level on types, including signs and symptoms of STIs was low, 47% and 20.4%, respectively, among respondents, though, respondents' level of knowledge of health risks was found to increase with age (N= 230; r= 0.254; p< 0.001) and duration of stay (N= 230; r= 0.174; p= 0.008) in the children's homes. Recommendations given to policy makers and program implementers included equipping adolescents with life skills and all facts on sexually transmitted infections. Programmes emphasizing abstinence only should be supported by governments and/or donors. Peer education should be encouraged and support to children's homes, in terms of funding and training should be increased. The findings will be helpful in planning and prioritizing resources, developing programmes and information education and communication (IEC) materials addressing STIs and HIV/AIDS targeting the adolescents in children's homes.

Supervisors:
Dr. Isaac Mwanzo
Dr. Michael F. Otieno


MUSA M. MULONGO  (M.Sc), Zoological Sciences

EVALUATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CD4+ T CELL RESPONSES TO THEILERIA PARVA VACCINE CANDIDATE ANTIGENS

East Coast fever (ECF) is a fatal disease of cattle, caused by Theileria parva, an intracellular haemoprotozoan parasite. Immunity in cattle immunized against T. parva using the infection and treatment method (ITM) is mediated by parasite-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) that destroy schizont-infected cells. Ten schizont antigens (Tp1-Tp10) recognised by CD8+ CTL have been identified and vaccine potential of six of these has been evaluated.  Initial results have shown a significant correlation between CD8+ CTL responses and survival after challenge, but CTL responses have only been induced in a proportion of vaccinated cattle. Since CD4+ T cells play a crucial role in the induction of naïve CD8+ T cell responses, it may be critical to incorporate antigens that contain CD4+ helper T cell epitopes in such a CTL-targeted vaccine. This work aimed at determining whether six of the CD8+ CTL-targeted vaccine candidate antigens contain CD4+ T cell epitopes and to establish whether cattle immunized by ITM mounted CD4+ T cell responses to these antigens.  Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) obtained from ITM-immunized cattle or those that had recovered from challenge infection following immunization with the candidate vaccine antigens, were used to generate antigen-specific CD4+ T cell lines by repeated stimulation with autologous T. parva infected cells (TpM) or pools of overlapping synthetic peptides. Screening and mapping of CD4+ T cell epitopes was carried out using both Lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-γ ELISpot assays. Two TpM-stimulated CD4+ T cell lines, generated from ITM-immunized animals, did not recognize any of the CTL target antigens.  However, ex vivo CD4+ T cell responses were detected to Tp1, Tp4, Tp5, Tp6 and Tp8 following immunization with CTL target antigens and challenge with T. parva sporozoites. CD4+ T cell lines specific to antigen Tp1 were generated from one of these animals (BZ001) by stimulation with synthetic peptides and two antigenic peptides mapped on Tp1 (Tp11450-1459 and Tp11983-1992). Interestingly, this CD4+ T cell line recognized the recombinant Tp1 protein but did not respond to autologus schizont infected cells.  The results of this study indicate that the CTL target antigen Tp1 contains CD4+ T cell epitopes which are sub-dominant or if dominant, are not sufficiently expressed on the surface of schizont-infected cells.  This work also suggests the need to develop methods of screening for CD4+ T cell antigens from T. parva that could be used to identify novel, immunodominant antigens presented on T. parva schizont infected cells that may enhance the potency of the sub-unit vaccine under development.

Supervisors:
Prof. Zipporah Ng'ang'a
Dr. Duncan Mwangi
Dr. Simon Graham


MWENDA M. PHYLIS  (M.Sc), Physics                 

DEVELOPMENT AND STUDY OF A MICROPROCESSOR – BASED DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR CONTROLLER

Control systems for electric motors have become so vital to the proper performance and protection of modern plant equipment that they are frequently the most essential  links in complex industrial applications. Electric motors play a very important part in furnishing power for all types of domestic and industrial applications. Understanding the direct current drive is particularly important because it is so widely used as a yardstick by which other drives are measured. Users who develop a good grasp of the direct current drive will find their know-how invaluable in dealing with all other types, particularly if they can establish a firm grip on the philosophy of the control scheme. Analogue and digital motor control systems already exist. These control systems have inherent weaknesses such as lack of system's flexibility, poor responses, large power losses, several switches and relays, large complexity of wiring, and a large number of circuitry.

This thesis presents a control system based on a 8088 microprocessor for starting, stopping and changing the direction of DC motors. The hardware consists of the micro-controller and the switching circuit connected to the motor. The microprocessor with the help of a clock produces pulses which are output through the port B of the Programmable Peripheral Interface (8255). This signal was fed to the switching circuit through a non inverting buffer. To run a motor both forward and reverse, an H-bridge circuit has been set that can reverse its polarity. The average voltage applied to the motor depends on the amount of time when the switch is ON with respect to the time when the switch is OFF (duty cycle). The control software was developed using assembly language and coded in 8086/8088 assembler. Experimental results were achieved using Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and a PM 3384 Autoranging Combiscope. The system possesses some advantages over the analog and digital motor controllers.

Supervisors:
Dr. G.A. Ibitola                    
Dr. A.S. Merenga    


JACOB A. ORINDA ONYANGO (M.A), History

THE HISTORY OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN KENYA: A CASE OF KISUMU AND NYANDO DISTRICTS 1945-2003

This study focuses on the history of Special Education in Kisumu and Nyando Districts of Kenya, 1945-2003.It examines the type of Education given to the youth before the colonial government and the missionaries. It argues that the colonial government was not concerned with the education of the Africans except to the extent that the education would give Africans minimal skills for use in colonial labor force. Equally the missionaries opened up catechism centers for religious institutions and basic schools for elementary instructions on arithmetic, reading and writing. The study established that from 1945, Special Education programs were started  in Kenya mainly spearheaded by  churches like the Salvation Army, the Catholic and other charitable organizations such as the Aghakan foundation. It is evident through the study that the Kenya government was aware of the needs of the disabled children as evident in the first education commission's report of 1964 which put forward some recommendations on the care to be put in place. Subsequent education commissions gave some recommendations on what was to be done towards the education of the handicapped but there was not much implementation until late1980's when training of teachers for the handicapped was centralized at Kenya Institute of Special Education. But still only four areas of handicap have been addressed at K.I.S.E. Programs for the gifted and talented and even adult literacy for disabled persons have not been addressed by the government. This further deny a big number of persons with Special Needs the services they deserve. The study found out that Special Education in Nyando and Kisumu Districts only gained ground with the establishment of Nyabondo center for the disabled, Kibos school for the blind in early 1960's, the establishment of Maseno school for the deaf and Joyland school for the physically handicapped in1970's. The institutions named above were initiated by the churches, a fact that confirms the little role the government played in providing education to the disabled.  It must however be noted that the government contributed by providing teachers for the special programs though much supervision and management was left in the hands of the sponsors, a fact which compromised quality and led to some conflicts in administration. The study has established that the challenges that face Special Education in Nyando and Kisumu Districts includes lack of physical facilities, qualified personnel, attitude by non disabled, funding, access and participation among others. Even though some of these are being addressed, when compared to the non-handicapped, people with disabilities are still highly disadvantaged.

Supervisors:
Dr. Samson M. Omwoyo
Dr. Lazarus K. Ngari


 KAHUTHIA BETH MBURA (M.Ed)

PRESCHOOL TEACHERS' ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION OF CHILDREN WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS IN THIKA MUNICIPALITY
  
Many Governments, Kenya included, face pressure from human rights organizations, like the United Nations, and other advocates of inclusive education, to establish inclusive education. However many countries are introducing inclusive education before thorough studies on the acceptance of inclusive education are conducted. It was on this premise that the researcher wished to establish the possibilities of the introduction of the philosophy of inclusion at preschool level in the country, by investigating the attitudes of preschool teachers.

The study focused on children with visual impairments instead of all children with special needs as Booth and Ainscow (1998) had argued that, teachers' attitudes had been found to vary with the type of disability and the extent of instructional adaptations required in order to accommodate such learners. The study was based mainly on learning theories, which are some of the theories of attitude formation.

The study was carried out in Thika Municipality of Thika District one of the district, in Central Province of Kenya, located about 42 Kilometers from Nairobi, the capital city. That being the only municipality with a primary and a secondary schools for the blind. The municipality had four educational zones with a total of 123 preschools and 252 teachers. Respondents to the study were 66 pre-school teachers, randomly sampled from 40 randomly sampled preschools. The research adopted a survey design.  Data collection Instruments included a five-point Likert Scale where questionnaires were used. A pilot study was carried out to validate the research instruments. To analyze the data, descriptive and inferential Statistics were used.

The major findings of the study were that, training had no significant effect of preschool teachers' attitude towards inclusion of children with visual impairments. Neither the type of preschool they were in nor the teacher-pupil ratio. From the research findings the researcher recommended that the public be sensitized on education of children with visual impairments, more preschool teachers be employed to further improve on the teacher-pupil ratio, training curriculum be revised to incorporate pedagogies of teaching young children with visual impairments and a policy on preschool special education be put in place. The study should be replicated with a bigger sample and from a larger location to enable generalization of the findings.

Supervisors:
Dr. Michael Njoroge
Dr. Haniel Gatumu


FLORENCE NZEMBI KIMATU (M.Ed)

WASTAGE IN PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION: THE CASE OF SLUM SCHOOLS IN KIBERA DIVISION, NAIROBI

The government of Kenya is committed to the goal of Education for all.  However, the problem of wastage in primary school education undermines this achievement.  Any factor that interferes with the learning not only undermines the educational goal but also hampers the growth and development of the children.  For this reason, there is a need to identify the factors that contribute to wastage in primary schools in Kenya.  This problem is more pronounced in the slum areas.  Therefore, the task of this study was to investigate the factors, which contribute to wastage in  Primary Schools in  Kibera   Langata Division in Nairobi.  Kibera is  the largest slums in Kenya.  and also one of the largest in Africa.

The study focused mainly on pupils,  teachers,school environment and   the home environment of the pupils in the identified schools. The specific objectives of the study were to find out: The relationship between wastage in education and pupil characteristics, the relationship between wastage in education and teacher characteristics, whether wastage in education was related to school characteristics, and how the home environment was related to wastage in education.

The target population for this study was purposively selected to participate in the study.  A total of 240 pupils and 56 teachers were selected from all regions in Kibera slum. While a number of researchers have addressed some of the issues related to wastage, the factors behind wastage in Kibera slum have not been adequately investigated and hence the necessity of this study.

Questionnaires, observation and interview schedules were used in collecting the data.  The collected data was analyzed quantitatively using ANOVA.  Part of the analysis was processed by the use of content analysis.

Hypotheses tested in the study were either rejected or accepted based on significance level that was fixed at 0.05.

The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between wastage in primary school pupils and pupils' negative attitude towards education and that pupils did not take their studies seriously.  Some combined learning with other activities the school environment was also found to be not conducive for learning. The pupils were ill – disciplined.  Such pupils kept on dropping out of school while some schoolgirls dropped out because of being sexually harassed by their male schoolmates and some teachers. The home environment was also found to be unfavourable for schooling.

The findings show that a concerted effort is required if the pupil dropout situation is to be reversed.  The parents, teachers and government should play a pro-active role in the alleviation of the problems that prevent pupils from completing their primary education.

This thesis is organized in five chapters.  Chapter one introduces the statement of the problem while chapter two reviews the relevant literature to the study as well as explaining the theoretical framework of the study.  Chapter three deals with methodology for data collection whereas chapter four presents data analysis.  Summary of the results conclusion and recommendations are presented in chapter five.

Supervisors:
Prof Augustine Mambo Karugu
Dr. Nelson Muema  Kisulu
Dr. Donald Kisilu Kombo





ISSAH WABUYABO KWEYU (M.Sc),

INFLUENCE OF ISLAM ON SPORTS PARTICIPATION AMONG MUSLIM STUDENTS IN KENYAN PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES.

Islam means submission and peace (Quraishy, 1987). There is a strong theological background supporting sports in Islam (Qur'an, 16:8). However, this is on condition that it is lawful and does not hamper other religious obligations (Qur'an 2: 219, 5: 91-92). Conclusive studies validate significant benefits of participating in physical activities. Exercise has been used in prevention and management of coronary heart disease, hypertension, blood lipids and lipoprotein profile, cardiac function, bone mineral status, smoking risks, body composition and weight control, blood glucose regulation, musculo-skeletal disorders, stress management and mental health among others. Despite this, there is still a gap between the theory and practice regarding participation in sports among Muslim students in Kenyan universities. The purpose of this study was to find out what causes the low Muslim students' participation in sports and in which ways Islam influences their participation in sports. The study adopted a survey design. This enabled the researcher to cover a wide area and acquire as much information as possible. This also enabled the researcher get the information about the situation as it is. Factors under investigation were gender as an independent variable while participation and level of performance were the dependent variables. The target population was 920 from the six public universities in Kenya. Under the guidance of the supervisors, a questionnaire was constructed on a five - point likert scale and then used to acquire information. Random sampling was used to select 252 out of the target population of 920. Descriptive statistics were used to describe students' participation levels in sport.  ANOVA was used to determine gender differences. Results showed significant differences in gender participation levels. Three out of five general factors (lack of information, facilities not convenient and lack of skills/friends with skills in the sport) affecting Muslim student' participation in sports showed significant difference at 0.047, 0.000 and 0.010 respectively. The following socio-economic factors showed significant difference (sport not for my gender and sport making me develop muscles) at 0.001 and 0.000 respectively. Three faith-related factors (participating is Sunnah, sports uniform conflict Islam dress code and audience of opposite gender) affecting Muslim student' participation in sports were found to significantly influence their participation at 0.027, 0.012 and 0.004 respectively. Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations were suggested to guide in policy formulation. Games teachers and coaches should be designed to fit various participants without infringement on their faith by having programmes that do not segregate on basis of faith. Department in charge of sports and games in institutions like the universities and teacher colleges should expand awareness of benefits of participating in physical activities among the Muslim society so as to change the generalized misconceptions held about participation in Physical activities. Institutions need to expand sports facilities to help attract and encourage both male and female students to participate in physical activities.

Supervisors:
Professor Edwin K. Wamukoya
Dr. Shakil Ahmad 
 


ONKEO MACHOGU JACOB  (M.Ed), Ed. Admin, Plan & curr. Dev.

IMPLICATIONS OF CURRENT MEANS TESTING PROCEDURES FOR HIGHER EDUCATION LOANS ON ACCESS TO UNIVERSITY EDUCATION BY UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN KENYA'S PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES

The ultimate goal of Higher Education Loans Board (HELB) is to enhance access and retention of qualified needy students in university education through loans. However, the criteria in which those loans are awarded has been deemed grossly inadequate due to some related weaknesses such as inefficient verification system for the needy cases and the categorization system of the loan which does not reflect the specific needs of the programs being pursued. Consequently, some of the needy students may not get the full amount of the loan (and bursaries) every time they apply. To this end, the purpose of the study was to assess the implications of HELB's current means testing procedures for higher education loans on access to university education by undergraduate students in Kenya's public universities with a view to improving its performance.

Purposive sampling was used to select Kenyatta and Maseno Universities, from which 200 and 118 students were randomly sampled, respectively, giving a total sample of 318 students for the study. In addition, one HELB official in charge of loan disbursement and recovery, and two University Registrars in charge of finance and planning, one from each university, were purposively selected to give information required. The researcher designed a questionnaire to collect data from students' respondents and an interview schedule for collecting data from the two Registrars and the HELB official. A pilot study was carried out to assess the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. Additionally, the researcher accessed other relevant documents such as articles and journals to supplement the data from the respondents.
A descriptive survey design was adopted in this study because of its appropriateness in describing, recording, analyzing and reporting conditions that exist on such issues as accessibility and retention in an educational program. The data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics, that is, frequency tables and percentages. In addition, the information from the document analysis was analyzed qualitatively by sorting out data into various themes in relation to the objectives of the study.

The findings of the study indicate that the majority of students (79 percent) in the total population sample were of the opinion that HELB should consider revising its current system of awarding loans in order to facilitate the identification of the needy cases. This implies that the HELB's loan awarding criteria does not adequately identify the needy cases.  

Seventy-seven percent of the total sample of students felt that the loan was inadequate in financing different degree programs. The two Registrars interviewed also affirmed the fact that each degree program has different unit cost requirement, with Science oriented courses costing more than Arts based courses. They further reported that even what HELB is currently awarding to students is not enough for Art based students leave alone the science ones. The HELB official shared the same opinion. This is because HELB does not have enough funds to cater for the total needs of every degree program.

Majority of students (64 percent) in the total sample indicated that most of the needy students who missed loan due to the inefficient loan awarding criteria used by HELB adopted other coping mechanisms and continue with their education. These options include working as barbers, cobblers, hairdressers, typing and printing, hawkers of light goods such as writing, photocopying papers, electronics, cigarettes and foodstuffs. Other survival tactics mentioned included; skipping meals, loitering in colleague's rooms for food, cohabiting with financially endowed counterparts and others were said to indulge in commercial sex for subsistence.

The Registrars also supported the fact that needy students who missed HELB loan do resort to coping strategies. However, the HELB official interviewed maintained that students who are denied loans and consequently find themselves in such “tough life” on campus are to be blamed for their own making owing to the irregularities they make on the loan application forms that eventually leads them to be disqualified.

The student respondents recommended that HELB should revise the eligibility and loan categorization criteria to reflect the socio-economic changes, act swiftly when considering appeals and disbursement process, decentralize its services to district levels for effective service delivery, and HELB personnel should practice high level of professionalism (i.e. improve on their public relations when dealing with students).

The Registrars recommended that HELB should liaise with the universities in order to monitor the lifestyles of continuing students to determine the nature and the levels of their needs, and it should also coordinate with other funding organizations who offer bursaries, scholarships and grants in order to countercheck the recipients and establish records of those who are genuinely needy. The Registrars just like students also emphasized that HELB should decentralize its services so as to reach applicants living in the countryside for effective service delivery. The HELB official interviewed recommended the need for the Board to mobilize enough resources through all possible legal means to guarantee every one who applies for the loan to get it. He also urged for more government support.
   
Recommendations for further Research was made with respect to related factors such as parents' views, the role of university student leaders and views from other public and private universities, which might influence HELB's role in enhancing access and retention of needy students.

Supervisors:
Dr. Norbert Ogum Ogeta
Dr. Riechi Rasugu Andrew


DAVID WILLIAM OKOTH OCHIEL (M.Ed)

THE HEADTEACHERS' LEADERSHIP STYLES, EFFECTIVENESS AND STUDENTS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN SIAYA DISTRICT, KENYA

The purpose of the study was to investigate the headteachers' leadership styles, effectiveness and students academic achievement (SAA) in public and private secondary schools in Siaya District, Kenya in the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) examinations from the year 2001 to 2004. First, the study established the headteachers' leadership styles and how these styles were related to the headteachers personal characteristics of: gender, age, level of education, teaching and administrative experience, duration of in-service training, perception of leadership theories and situational factors of categories of school, leaders-member relations and both students and teachers population of a school. Second, the study attempted to establish the extent of relationship between the headteachers leadership styles and the SAA. The study used a correlation design, which is descriptive in nature. The target population was 72 secondary schools, seventy-two headteachers and 682 teachers. Only 30 schools, which had been having the same headteachers and had presented students for KSCE examinations from the year 2001 to 2004, were purposively sampled. Two types of research tools were used in the study to elicit data: two self-administered questionnaires and one documentary analysis checklist.  The questionnaires (the general and LBD scale) for the teachers were used to collect data regarding their age, gender and teaching experience and the teachers' views of their headteachers' leadership styles. The headteachers' questionnaire was in three parts; the general, the least preferred co-workers (LPC) and the leader-member relations (LMR) scales. The general questionnaires were used to obtain data on headteachers' personal characteristics and situational factors aforementioned.  The LPC and LMR scale questionnaires were used to solicit data on headteachers' leadership styles and their relations with the staff respectively. The document analysis checklist provided information regarding the SAA in KCSE examinations. The validity and reliability of these instruments were pre-tested and enhanced and a coefficient of 0.7 and above was worked with. The data obtained by the instruments were coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequency distribution, percentages, means, standard deviation and Spearman rho. The standard deviation was used to determine the spread from the mean of the SAA while Spearman rho static was used to determine the direction and extent/strength of relationship between headteachers' leadership styles and SAA. The major study findings were as follows: the teachers rated 19 (67.9 %) headteachers in the public secondary schools category as being relationship oriented leaders, 9 (32.1 %) as task oriented leaders, while both the 2 (100%) headteachers in the private secondary schools were rated as being task oriented leaders. No statistically significant relationship was found between the headteachers' leadership styles and both their personal qualities and other factors which included: gender, age, duration in a given school, headship and administrative experiences, academic and professional qualifications, perception of leadership theories, categories of schools depending on the teachers' and students' populations, students' residential place and sex and number of classes in a school. However, There was a statistically significant relationship between a headteacher's leadership style and his/her duration of leadership in-service training and also with his/her relationship with the staff. On the other hand, a curious finding was that a statistically significant relationship between headteachers' leadership styles and students' academic achievement in KCSE examination from the year 2001 to 2004 was absent. The study concluded that the extent of realization of the educational and learning objectives in the secondary tier of education system as stipulated out by the MoEST and evaluated by KNEC, through KCSE examinations were rather low in Siaya District. This is because the district recorded somewhat low student academic achievement from 2001 to 2004. However, the headteachers leadership styles seemed not to have been the major contributing factor towards the fairly low SAA. The study recommends first, an explicit theory development showing the yardstick for establishing leadership effectiveness in secondary schools in Kenya. Second a policy framework to motivate practicing and aspiring headteachers to attend KESI in-service training programme. Third, a further research in Siaya District to establish the more likely factors that caused the reported relatively low SAA and the study should also be replicated using a different design, instruments, area or in the same area probably after at least four years from 2004.

Supervisors:
Prof. Jotham O. Olembo
Dr. Festus Muchira


WINFRED WAMBUI NDEGE  (M.A.), Geography

THE EFFECTS OF ECOTOURISM ON COMMUNITY LIVELIHOODS AND NATURAL RESOURCES USE IN KAJIADO DISTRICT, KENYA

This study examines the effects of ecotourism on community livelihoods and natural resources use in Loitokitok Division, Kajiado District. The analysis is based on benefits; both direct and indirect accrued from ecotourism, change of resources use from consumptive to non-consumptive ways, effects on frequency of human-wildlife conflict incidences as well as response of the community to these incidences.
Data for analysis were collected from a sample of 40 members of the community through questionnaire method. In addition, one member each from the institutions involved in ecotourism (AWF, KWS and Porini Ecotourism Company) in the area was interviewed. Direct observation and secondary data were also used to collect data. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data processing and analysis. The testing of hypothesis was done by the use of Chi-square test to determine if the differences observed were statistically significant.

The results from the analysis revealed that with the introduction of ecotourism in the study area members of the community did not only utilise the natural resources in consumptive ways such as for game meat, but also they utilize in non-consumptive ways such as viewing. There was a significant difference (P  0.05) in the use of natural resources before and after ecotourism. The results also show that ecotourism has influenced the community's livelihood through benefits accrued from ecotourism. This has been possible through participation of the members in ecotourism either directly or indirectly. The findings however reveal that there is no significance difference (P 0.05) in the level of participation by all members of the community. Some community members work in the ecolodge as waiters while others sell their souvenirs to the tourists.

The conclusion that emerges is that though the community still utilises the natural resources in consumptive ways, ecotourism has enabled the members to use the same resources in a non-consumptive manner for the benefit of all. This in return illustrates that ecotourism is a sustainable land use option. The income accrued from ecotourism has played a role in boosting the economic status of the community, hence improving their livelihood. This has also been achieved through offering employment opportunities and financing the community's projects such as schools and water holes.

The main recommendation is that ecotourism should be enhanced in areas at the vicinity of protected areas such as national parks more so in the rangelands or arid and semi-arid lands where livelihood options tend to be limited. This is because these communities experience losses and costs through attack and damage on lives and property from the wild animals. Indeed, wildlife does not recognize boundaries and most of it is outside the parks. Through ecotourism, the community will experience benefits from these resources and hence will in return conserve and manage these resources in sustainably. Ecotourism is therefore, a sustainable conservation strategy.

Supervisors:
Dr. Joy Obando
Dr. Ismael O. Mahiri



HILDA KEBEYA  (Ph.D), English and Linguistics

LINGUISTIC ACCOMMODATION AND CODE SWITCHING DURING LUO/LUYIA AND LUO/GUSII CONTACT

The study set out to investigate and then compare the linguistic behaviour of bilingual speakers in two rural border areas in Kenya. In order to achieve this, sixteen recordings of naturally occurring speech were obtained from Luo/Luyia bilingual speakers in Kiboswa, and Luo/Gusii bilingual speakers in Suneka. This data was then transcribed and analysed.

The major questions that motivated the research were: What linguistic strategies do bilingual speakers in linguistic border points use in inter-group communication? Are there systematic sociolinguistic patterns exhibited by speakers in the two study areas? What are the motivations behind these patterns?

The study found out that speakers in Kiboswa and Suneka use three linguistic strategies in inter-group interaction: convergence, divergence and code switching. These three strategies appeared to be influenced by situational factors (e.g. the household type), extra-linguistic factors (e.g. ethnicity, sex and age), social-psychological factors (e.g. desire for social approval and integration from the other, asserting of one's ethnic group) and socio-cultural factors (e.g. jamwas being used in ritualistic practises). In addition, speakers in both borders were found to use their own-group code rather than their listener's code, thus an indication that during inter-ethnic contact speakers are likely to diverge from, rather than converge to, their interlocutor. This finding appears to cast doubts on the claim made by the Speech Accommodation Theory by Giles and Robinson (1990) that in inter-group interaction speakers will tend to converge towards their listeners. It is possible that the difference is due to the different societies investigated (ours is an African setting whereas Giles and Robinson study Western societies). It may also be due the different approaches used (Giles & Robinson are social psychologists and used the matched guise technique, this study is sociolinguistic in nature and adopted the observation method). This finding perhaps echoes Romaine's (1982) remark that African contexts are linguistically different in several ways from Western ones.

As far as Code Switching is concerned both inter-sentential and intra-sentential switching was observed in the two study areas. However, our data appeared to show that for intra-sentential switching to take place at least one of the languages involved had to be a High Code. Thus, all instances of intra-sentential switching in our data had English and/or Swahili serving as either the matrix or embedded language. Inter-sentential switching, on the other hand, could take place with or without a High Code. This is observation may be considered another contribution of the present study.   

To determine the stylistic functions of Luo/Luyia and Luo/Gusii code switching the study categorised all the code switched material into three classes: sequential unmarked code switching, unmarked code switching and exploratory code switching (cf. Myers-Scotton 1993a). It became apparent that each type of switching is motivated by different factors. Therefore, this study found that bilingual speakers in Kiboswa and Suneka used each code in their repertoire to achieve a particular goal. Thus Code Choice and Code switching are important phenomena in the two speech communities.

Supervisors:
Dr. Eunice Nyamasyo
Dr. Caleb Shivachi
   


OGUBI MARY ANYANGO (M.P.H.)

THE ROLE OF STREEET FOODS AS A SOURCE OF MICRONUTRIENTS TO RESIDENTS OF NAIROBI, KENYA

Vitamin A (VA), iron and zinc deficiencies are now of public health concern in Kenya. Although more than 40% of Nairobi's lower-income areas consume street foods (SFs), inadequate information exists on their micronutrient (MN) content and there is little knowledge on the contribution or potential contribution of SFs to MN intake. The study objective was to determine household intake of VA, iron and zinc, and the proportion of the intakes from SFs. Cross-sectional surveys, biochemical analysis of foods and a non-repetitive 24hr-dietary recall were employed. A sample of 600 households was surveyed in the two study sites. Ninety street food vendors were considered for the study. At least 30% of SFs were analyzed for VA, iron and zinc content. The study sites were Kangemi and Dandora (low and middle-low in-come groups, respectively). Student's t-test was used to compare the means of independent data from the two sites while the chi-square (χ2) test was used to compare categorical (%) data from the two sites. Results indicate that there was no significant difference (p<0.05) in the consumption pattern of SFs between the two sites. VA intake from SFs was higher in Dandora than in Kangemi i.e. 9.5% and 2.6% of Recommended Daily Intake (RDI), respectively. The proportion of VA intake from SFs (out of the daily total VA intake) was 25% and 4% in Dandora and Kangemi, respectively. The differences in VA intake from SFs from the two sites was attributed to quantities consumed because there was no significant difference (p<0.05) in the pattern and in the levels of VA in SFs from the two sites. SFs contributed on average, about a quarter of daily intake iron in the two sites combined. Iron intake from SFs in both sites (15mg/AE in Kangemi and 25mg/AE in Dandora) was sufficient to meet the RDI for iron for adults (5-28mg/AE). From the quantities consumed, the difference in iron intakes was partly attributed to the consumption pattern since the consumption pattern of some iron-rich foods was statistically different (p<0.05) between the two sites. Zinc intake from SFs on average accounted for about one-fifth of daily intake. Although the absolute values and proportions of zinc intakes were higher in Dandora than Kangemi, there was no statistical proof (p<0.2, p<0.34) that SFs had more contributory role in Dandora than Kangemi. There was significant differences (p<0.03) in the contribution of VA and iron intakes from SFs in the middle-low and low-income groups in Nairobi. SFs zinc accounts for 11.9% of RDI in Kangemi and 24.6% in Dandora. VA, iron and zinc intakes from SFs are low among the low income groups as compared to middle low income group. These finding are expected to guide policy makers, city council authorities, research institutions and relevant stakeholders on the way forward for SFs in Nairobi.
Key words: Street foods, micronutrients, low-socio economics, Nairobi.

Supervisors:
Prof. Judith N. Waudo
Dr. Afullo Augustine


IYAYA WANJALA (PH.D), Mathematics
SOME INVESTIGATIONS ON SINGULAR CAUCHY PROBLEMS  
                         
The purpose of our study is to get a solution to the Cauchy problem of:
(I)    The wave equation in n-dimension space     which is effectively a good example of  regular Cauchy problems
(ii)    The Euler Poisson Darboux equation which we call singular Cauchy problem by use of Riemann's method.
The Riemann-Green function for each case is calculated, which enables us to evaluate any solution at a point by the Cauchy data on a non-characteristic curve.
In case (I) the Riemann-Green function is in terms of Legendre polynomial and the solution obtained is shown to solve the wave equation as well.
In case (ii) the Riemann-Green function written in terms of the Appell's hyper geometric function of two variables is arrived at, this is of interest and may be a good model for a more general theory.
A discussion of the generalized singular Cauchy problem of Euler-Poisson-Darboux equation is included and found to have solution that is continuous and analytic over the interval that contains the singular point

Supervisors:
Dr Charles Nyandwi
Prof. John Mutio


NYAKOBOKE OIRERE (M.P.H.), Foods, Nutrition & Dietitians

PERCEPTIONS, BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ON THE HEALTH BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH CONSUMPTION OF AFRICAN LEAFY VEGETABLES IN WESTERN KENYA

Many Sub-Sahara African countries are faced with food and nutritional insecurity. Declining production and utilization of African Leafy Vegetables (ALVs) would lead to reduced dietary diversity at household levels with associated adverse nutritional consequences. Furthermore, local indigenous vegetable species have not received as much promotional attention compared to the exotic crops counterparts. A cross-sectional descriptive study was therefore designed to establish perceptions, beliefs and practices of community members on the health benefits associated with consumption of ALVs in Butere-Mumias District. A simple random sample size of 316 respondents was involved in this study. The study was designed to use both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods, including structured questionnaires, a week consumption recall, key informant interview guides and focus group discussions. Data was managed using SPSS software while analyses utilized Chi-Square test and Contingency Coefficient measures of association to test the hypotheses and establish relationship between variables. Consumption of ALVs among the Kwisero community members was found to be high with a majority of respondents (80.8%) consuming them 4 or more times a week. They mainly obtain them from their own farms. Overall, the most commonly consumed ALVs include Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) (85%), followed by Jute plant (Corchorus) (73%), Spider plant (Cleome gynandra) (71%), African nightshade (Solunum spp.) (69%), Africa Sunhemp (Crotararia spp.) (59%), Leafy Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) (43%), Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) (6%) and Vine spinach (Basella alba) (4%) in that order. There was a significant correlation between indigenous knowledge and consumption patterns of ALVs at 0.05 level of significance (p<0.005). There was no significant differences (p<0.005) found for gender, religion, education, type of house, head of household's occupation and family size and ALVs consumption levels. However, age, mother's occupation and type of roofing used were found to be positively correlated with ALVs consumption level. Various indigenous knowledge regarding health benefits of consumption of ALVs was established. From the study it can be concluded that culture plays a great role in ALVs consumption. Indigenous knowledge is embedded in their utilization and therefore critical for their promotion. There is therefore a need to explore traditional dietary patterns further which could potentially have health implications especially for non-communicable diseases.

Supervisors:
Dr. Afullo Augustine
Mrs. Elizabeth Ambani



NJUGUNA BEN MUNGAI (M.SC), Biochemistry & Biotechnology

USE OF A PCR-BASED PROCEDURE FOR DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN SCHISTOSOMA MANSONI AND SCHISTOSOMA RODHAINI 
                                                   
Schistosoma mansoni, the parasite responsible for causing human intestinal schistosomiasis, is closely related to Schistosoma rodhaini, a parasite of rodents and carnivorous mammals. S. rodhaini was discovered in Kenya for the first time in the early 1960's in the wild rodents and domestic dogs obtained from a locality near the town of Kisumu on the shores of Lake Victoria, western Kenya. Schistosoma mansoni and schistosoma rodhaini at cercariae level are closely related morphologically. As a result it is difficult to differentiate them at cercariae level which may lead to misdiagnosing where the two parasites are endemic underscoring the need for an alternative diagnostic tool The presence of S. rodhaini in an area known to be endemic for S. mansoni such as western Kenya could potentially complicate the epidemiological picture or control of human intestinal schistosomiasis in the area. Consequently, sampling of snail populations collected from field locations to gather basic epidemiological information on human schistosomiasis for a particular area may not provide reliable results under such circumstances. In the present study, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based technique was developed to help the identification of cercariae or adults of S. mansoni and S. rodhaini towards improved diagnosis. Three isolates of S. rodhaini were recovered from naturally infected Biomphalaria sudanica collected from habitats present along the Lake Victoria shore in western Kenya. From the three isolates a portion of the 16S-12S region of the mitochondrial DNA was amplified by PCR in schistosome genomic DNA, and the resulting product (750bp in size) was incubated with restriction enzyme BamHI or AccI for 4 hr at 37ºC. Species-specific restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) band patterns revealed on agarose gel by electrophoresis and ethidium bromide staining differentiated between the two related schistosome species. The enzyme BamHI cut the amplified product in S. rodhaini DNA into 2 smaller fragments (153bp and 604bp in size) but not S. mansoni DNA. Similarly, the enzyme AccI cut the S. mansoni PCR product into 2 fragments of 110bp and 649bp in size but not that of S. rodhaini, producing species-specific RFLP band patterns on agarose gel. These results demonstrate technique reliably identified both the adults' worms and cercariae of S. mansoni or S. rodhaini, and it may be useful in accurately identifying and monitoring S. mansoni transmission sites, and other epidemiological studies on S. mansoni or S. rodhaini. The technique requires further evaluation to determine its usefulness in identifying S.mansoni group species as it has the potential for providing new information. This technique may be useful in accurately identifying and monitoring S. mansoni transmission sites and also the technique is useful in other epidemiological studies on S. mansoni or S. rodhaini where both parasites are present sympatrically.

Supervisors
Prof  Eliud N M Njagi
Dr Gerald M Mkoji 

OTHOO DOROTHY APONDI (M.SC), Foods, Nutrition &Dietetics

DIETARY ASSESSMENT OF VITAMIN A AND IRON AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN AT NDHIWA SUB DISTRICT HOSPITAL, KENYA

The study was a descriptive case study done at Ndhiwa Sub District Hospital, Homa-Bay District. The main purpose of the study was to establish vitamin A and iron consumption levels of pregnant women as well as the relationship between vitamin A consumption levels and iron consumption levels during pregnancy. Studies on iron and vitamin A have in the past focused on children while maternal vitamin A and iron has not been exhaustively documented. Moreover few studies in Kenya have focused on the relationship between vitamin A and iron during pregnancy. The findings will be useful to policy makers and NGOs in designing and implementing programs suitable to improve vitamin A and iron among pregnant women. Data on vitamin A and iron were assessed using 24-hour recall of three days and food frequency questionnaire recommended by HellenKeller International (1999). Demographic and general health data were collected through structured interview questionnaires. Data analysis was done using Sight and Life vitamin A calculator for vitamin A consumption and Nutrisurvey for iron consumption. SPSS was used to analyse consumption frequencies of vitamin A and iron rich foods as well as demography and other qualitative data. Nutrition status was determined as BMI which was analysed using BMI calculator. Majority (80 %) had severe vitamin A inadequacy, 12% had mild inadequacy while 8% had adequate vitamin A. On the other hand, 65 % had severe iron inadequacy, 27% had mild inadequacy while 8% had adequate iron. Prevalence of dietary vitamin A and iron inadequacies at Ndhiwa Sub District Hospital was at 90%. Vitamin A and iron rich foods were irregularly consumed by most respondents. There was a positive significant relationship between vitamin A and iron consumption of pregnant women at Ndhiwa Sub District Hospital. Food cost and number of meals consumed per day are some of the factors that influenced vitamin A and iron consumption of pregnant women at Ndhiwa Sub District Hospital. Almost half of respondents (49 %) had normal nutrition status that is attributed to good nutrition status prior pregnancy. Number of meals consumed per day influenced nutrition status (BMI) of pregnant women at Ndhiwa sub District Hospital. Number of meals consumed per day contributed to nutrition status more than vitamin A and iron consumption.

Supervisors:    Prof. Judith N. Waudo
        Dr. Elizabeth N. Kuria


OHAGA SPALA ODUOR (PH.D), Zoology

OPTIMIZATION OF SEMIO-CHEMICALS FOR SAVANNAH TSETSE CONTROL THROUGH 'PUSH', 'PULL' AND 'PUSH-PULL' TACTICS IN KENYA

A synthetic repellent for savannah tsetse (2-methoxy-4-methylphenol), which is a synthetic analogue of a mild natural repellent (2-methoxyphenol), found in the body odours of tsetse bovid hosts were recently identified. Preliminary field trials indicated that the repellent could provide substantial protection to cattle. The repellent could also be integrated with other tsetse control tactics in a 'push-pull' strategy that uses repellents to 'push' the flies away from their hosts, in conjunction with baited traps/targets, which 'pull' and kill them. This study evaluated the efficacy of the 'push-pull' tactic in enhancing tsetse suppression rates and disease levels using on-host repellents to 'push' and baited traps to 'pull' the flies in Shimba Hills, Kwale District, Kenya. From cross-sectional surveys conducted in the area, livestock farmers considered livestock diseases; trypanosomosis, anaplasmosis, East Coast fever and foot-and-mouth disease to be the major constraints to livestock production in the area. Trypanosomosis was the most important compared to other diseases. Chemotherapy was the most widely used method of controlling the disease. Farmer-based tsetse control strategies were poorly adopted. Most farmers demonstrated awareness about trypanosomosis, its clinical symptoms, aetiology, correct treatment and control measures. Survey of the epidemiology of cattle trypanosomosis in the area indicated that, Glossina austeni, G. brevipalpis and G. pallidipes were found in the area. Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax were diagnosed in cattle with infection prevalences in the animals varying between 0 and 25%.  A field trial conducted in the area to evaluate the effectiveness of 'push-pull' tactic for tsetse and trypanosomosis control indicated that the 'push-pull' might be a more effective way of reducing tsetse populations, trypanosomosis disease incidences and trypanocidal drug use and improving herd health and productivity compared to 'push' or 'pull'. 'Push-pull' gave significantly higher reduction (62%) in trypanosomosis incidence compared to 'push' (59%) and 'pull' (53%) (χ2 = 65.4; df = 2; p <0.001). Risk of transmission of trypanosomosis in the controls was upto three times significantly (χ2 = 43.2; df = 1; p <0.0001) higher than protected cattle. Body weight, body condition and packed cell volume levels were significantly (F = 48.9; df = 1; p <0.01) higher in protected cattle than controls. Percentage reduction in G. pallidipes relative density in 'push-pull' was 83% compared to 77% in 'pull' sites. Households with protected cattle recorded significant reduction in trypanocidal drug use (χ2 = 11.8; df = 1; p = 0.003). Following the trial, livestock farmers' perceptions on the impacts of the repellent and traps on tsetse challenge and trypanosomosis risk were assessed. Most farmers considered significant reduction in trypanocidal drug use, disease incidence and tsetse population to be the most important benefits of repellents and traps. Additional benefits included quieter grazing, protection of goats and opening up of previously avoided fields for grazing and crop production. Most farmers preferred repellents or traps or both to current methods of tsetse and trypanosomosis control. All farmers preferred repellents to traps. With a view of increasing the potency of the 'pull' component, trials conducted to evaluate the attractiveness of aldehyde blends showed that the blends when used alone did not significantly increase trap catches (χ2 = 0.61; df = 1; p = 0.461), but when combined with cow urine and/ or acetone, they increased the catches, although this was not statistically significant (χ2 = 0.85; df = 1; p = 0.644). Repellents could be integrated with other tsetse control techniques such as traps in enhancing tsetse and disease suppression.

Supervisors:
Prof. Elizabeth K. Kokwaro
Prof. Isaiah O. Ndiege
Dr. Rajinder Kumar Saini
Prof. Ahmed Hassanali



YANO RENEE PENINAH  (M.SC), Accounting & Finance

PENSION FUND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN KENYA AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE AVERAGE RETURN OF THE FUND

The pension industry in Kenya has been characterized by rampant mismanagement and misappropriation of funds that led to underperformance. The management strategies employed by the Kenyan fund managers have been questioned and therefore been a major issue of concern. In an effort to establish the best management strategy that maximized returns of the fund, the study sought to establish the management strategies employed by the Kenyan fund managers, the predominant strategy, its effectiveness and challenges.
The target population was all pension fund managers, registered with the Retirement Benefit Authority (RBA). The data collected through questionnaire was analyzed using descriptive statistics with the aid of Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) and results presented by use of frequency tables and pie charts. Microsoft Excel was also used in the determination of averages and weighted averages.

The study found out that the performance of hybrid managers was superior. Hence, its recommendation for adoption in the management of pension funds in Kenya. The study makes recommendations to investors, fund managers, RBA, and the security markets officials. The study contributes to the existing literature on pension fund industry in Kenya while suggesting on further researchable areas, to form basis for further scholarly work.

Supervisors:
Dr. Elijah W. Khakame
Dr. Wekesa M. J. Wesonga


NYANJE D. BATSO (PH.D), Philosophy and Religious Studies

ABORTION AS A HUMAN RIGHT; A CONCEPTUAL AND
PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

This study is prompted by the clamour to legalize abortion in Kenya and other countries worldwide. The researcher's curiosity was particularly triggered by a suggestion that abortion is a human right. Given that the United Nations considers human life to be a basic human right, common sense dictates that abortion cannot be a human right. Yet, this does not appear to be the case and the United Nations seems to condone abortion.

This raises a serious incoherence and, in particular, we discern a contradiction that is inconsistent with basic philosophical principles. It is against this backdrop that this study set out to investigate the meaning of life, human rights and abortion, to determine whether abortion can really be a human right.
   
The study is premised on the centrality and preservation of life as a basis of any talk regarding human rights. It suggests that any discussion on life and abortion must revolve around scientific knowledge regarding the development of human beings and abortion procedures. In the present study, this knowledge was obtained from sources in major libraries in Nairobi as given in the methodology section of chapter one.
   
The central thesis is anchored on scientific knowledge as well as on natural law as core frameworks. Scientific knowledge grounds the development of human being together with abortion procedures. This helps to determine in an objective way what sort of a being the fetus is. The abortion procedures too help to determine the nature and being of the fetuses. Natural law, on the other hand, gives the basis of human rights.
   
We have also endeavored to concretize our thesis within the context of a specific African world view, to test the viability and validity of some of our arguments. Specifically, a reconstruction of the Duruma world view of life and abortion, gathered through intensive interviews from a sample of fifty respondents, reveals an ethic that respects all life and recognizes the unborn as human beings whose life need protection.

This study has demonstrated that the main objective of human rights is to safeguard human life. It has also demonstrated that the embryos and fetuses are human. Consequently, abortion, which undermines human life, cannot be a human right. This comes out from an analysis and evaluation of the main concepts, catalysts to abortion and arguments that are shown to be faulty.   

The study finally recommends, among other things, that the United Nations needs to give a clear point, one that is consistent with scientific knowledge, when it considers as the beginning of life. The population control movement's ideas need to be carefully evaluated before being adopted especially when it has a close relationship with IPPF. Further research is also recommended from African communities with regard to life and abortion. Finally we recommend that there is need to “discover” the real reasons behind abortion support given that it has been demonstrated that it (Abortion) is not a human right.

Supervisors:
Prof. Gichure, C.W   
Dr. Ogeno,  J.


DOMENIC S. KIOGORA MURITHI (M.SC.),

NODULATION AND MYCORRHIZA STATUS OF DUAL PURPOSE SOYBEAN VARIETIES IN DIFFERENT AGRO ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF CENTRAL KENYA HIGHLANDS

Twelve soybean varieties were tried for their nodulation status, mycorrhiza colonization, and grain yield potential, in four different sites that represent four agro ecological zones of central Kenya. In each of the four sites, ten of the twelve soybean varieties (TGx and some local varieties) were planted during the long rains of the year 2005. Four different treatments (control, phosphorous, phosphorous and lime, phosphorous lime and nitrogen) were applied to each of these varieties. The experiment was carried out in a strip plot block design with the soil amendments as the main factor and varieties as sub factor. The nodulation, biomass, and mycorrhiza were investigated at 50% podding when the nodules are well developed just before senescence sets in and when before seeds are formed. Ten plants per plot were cut at the point of the first node, dried and biomass determined. The roots were carefully dug out and the nodules detached and counted. A sub sample of the fine roots was preserved in formyl acetic acid alcohol (FAA) for analysis of mycorrhiza colonization. The bacteria nodulating various soybean varieties were isolated in YEMA. Nodulation test was carried out on these isolates in the green house with soybeans as the test crop. Means were analyzed using ANOVA and separated by Student Newman Keul's test. Nodulation with the indigenous Rhizobia was apparent in all sites and for all varieties. Promiscuous varieties had higher nodulation than the specific variety (Nyala) in all sites and for all treatments. The duration of growth had effect on nodulation with the late maturing varieties having better nodulation than the early maturing ones. Different agro ecological zones had different varieties that were superior in terms of nodulation, grain yield, biomass, and mycorrhiza colonization. In Mitunguu there was a significant difference (P<0.05) in yield per acre from the various treatments and a highly significant difference (P<0.01) between the varieties while in Tharaka there was no significant difference (P<0.01) in yield resulting from the different treatments but a highly significant difference (P<0.01) from variety to variety. In Embu there was no significant difference in yield at (P<0.05) level. This is in contrast to Maragua where there was a highly significant difference in yield for both treatment and variety. Mitunguu and Embu had comparable and higher yields in kg ha-1 compared to Tharaka and Maragua which had comparable but lower yields in kg/ha. Inoculation was beneficial in Maragua but not in Mitunguu. In Tharaka and Embu there seems to be enough nitrogen in the soil and infection was very low (3 nodules/plant in Tharaka and <5nodules/plant in Embu). Rhizobium population levels need to be increased in Tharaka, Embu, and Maragua by inoculation.. The high performance of Maksoy 1N and Namsoy 4N need be investigated in all the sites. The late maturing high biomass fixing varieties like SB9 should be tried with inoculation in the more humid areas like Embu and Maragua where they will have enough growing period to both fix nitrogen and produce high yield. Further research on the effect of subsequent cropping with soybeans on nodulation is recommended to check for rhizobium buildup in the soil.
 
Supervisors:    Dr. Gitonga M. Nkanata
        Dr. Joyce Jefwa


WANGATI, CHARLES   KIAMA (M.SC), Physics

INFLUENCE OF SPUTTER POWER AND SPUTTER PRESSURE ON OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF WOx THIN  FILMS DEPOSITED BY REACTIVE DC
MAGNETRON SPUTTERING
                                                                                      
Tungsten oxide thin films play a major role in electrochromism and it's the most investigated electrochromic material. Studies have shown that structural, electrical and optical properties of tungsten oxide thin films depend on deposition conditions and preparation techniques. In this work, the optical properties of tungsten oxide thin films prepared in reactive dc magnetron sputtering of tungsten target with argon in oxygen atmosphere have been studied. The optical properties of films prepared at different sputtering power from 300 watts to 400 watts and sputtering pressure  in the range (0.65 – 0.90) Pa were investigated through the transmittance spectra recorded by optical spectroscopy measurements in the wavelength range 300-800 nm. The experimental curves of transmittance are reproduced by simulations to determine the band gap energy, refractive index, extinction coefficient, and film thickness of tungsten oxide films. From these studies the effects of increasing sputtering power from 300 watts to 400 watts was found to; decrease optical band gap from 3.16 eV to 2.97 eV while refractive index increased from 2.05 to 2.38 respectively. In addition, the deposition rate increased while extinction coefficient decreased with sputtering power. Increasing sputtering pressure from 0.65 Pa to 0.90 Pa resulted to decrease in band gap energy from 2.94 eV to 2.89eV while refractive index decreased from 2.43 to 2.08 respectively. The surface structure of the films is smooth as revealed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements. Further, the x-ray diffraction measurement indicated that tungsten oxide thin films deposited are amorphous.

Supervisors:    Dr. W. K. Njoroge
        Prof. J. Okumu


GITHAIGA JOHN IRUNGU (M.SC), Physics

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A MICROPROCESSOR –BASED CAR LENGTH MONITORING SYSTEM

In our local car storage facilities in some of our major towns, the drivers spend a lot of time looking out for an appropriate space for their cars. In a simple system where cars are categorized on the dimension basis, sensitive sensors may be utilized to configure the exact size with a higher degree of accuracy. This ensures maximum utilization of the storage facility simply by storing the car whose dimensions match to those of the facility. This technology is available in robotic parking. The usage of this robotic technology in our Kenyan situation is however expensive and unreliable and is thus vital to develop cheaper and cost effective means. One advantage in this cheaper technology is the standard width of modern cars and can therefore use length criteria to categorize the cars. It is possible to design a system that would continually and automatically monitor the cars length, display the length to the client (driver) and the facility currently available and suitable for such car size.

To solve this problem, this research project focused on designing and fabricating a microprocessor-based car length monitoring system. The system reads the bit pattern from the length monitoring sensor stem, interprets the information and displays the length configured and later display the facility suitable for the car length. The system is implemented by constructing a microelectronic system based on Z80 processor interfaced to 2716 EPROM, 6116 RAM, two 8255 PIAs ,a seven-segment display, two Light Emitting Diode Displays and a photo resistor sensor circuit. The photo resistor sensor circuit consists of eight photo resistors separated at a distance of 10cm from each other. The seven segment displays and Light Emitting Diodes are both driven by 74LS48 Integrated Circuits (ICs) and are connected to port B (8255 PIA 2) and port B (8255 PIA 1)  respectively. The program for driving the system is developed and coded using Z80 assembly assembler. The components used are chosen based on their cheap cost, low current and voltage ratings ( 5V ), high performance, better frequency response and easier logic family compatibility. The Z80 assembly language is preferred due to its powerful but extremely flexible instruction set (150 in number) and its ability of supporting 64K RAM memory. A car model is passed over the photo resistor sensors. As it fully by-passes the first sensor, it is stopped momentarily for 20 seconds. The length monitoring system configures the resulting binary combination due to mechanical optical beam interruption. The information is fed into port A (8255 PIA 1). The car length size and facility are displayed in port B (8255 PIA 2) and port B (8255 PIA 1) respectively. The system displays the car length size and facility in order of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Supervisors:
Dr. A. S. Merenga                       
Dr. J. N. Mutuku  


ERICK M.O. MUOK (M.Sc), Zoological Sciences

EFFECTS ON REGULATORY T CELL SUBSETS IN SCHISTOSOMA MANSONI AND PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM CO-INFECTIONS IN PRE - TEEN SCHOOL CHILDREN IN ASEMBO RARIEDA DIVISION OF WESTERN KENYA

Studies of epidemiology and immune parameters of individuals co-infected with schistosomiasis and malaria have suggested strong support for involvement of both diseases in increasing morbidity and pathology of either disease. This has been attributed to shifts in the T regulatory cell (Treg) populations and Programmed Cell Death-1 (PD-1) expression on T cells, which are the indicators of immunoregulation in parasitic infections, leading to further dampening of the specific immune response to either of the disease.   There is however a fundamental lack of understanding of the total mechanisms by which malaria infection interacts with the host immune system in S. mansoni infection.  This study aimed at investigating the effects of falciparum malaria on levels of expression of T-regulatory subsets in pre-teen school children in Asembo Rarieda division infected with Schistosoma mansoni. The effects of intensity of infection with Schistosoma mansoni on expression of Treg and PD-1 subsets, and the differences in expression of T cell subsets - CD3, CD4 and CD25 in schistosomiasis mansoni single infection and schistosomiasis mansoni co-infection with P. falcipurum were investigated.  Four-color flow cytometric immunophenotyping of T-lymphocytes was performed using combinations of monoclonal antibodies directly conjugated to flourescein isothiocyanate (FITC), phycoerythrin (PE) and allophycocyyanin (APC).  The intensity of schistosome infection had no influence on expression of both Treg (p = 0.7629) and PD-1 (p = 0.2355), or effector T cell activation (CD3+/CD4+/CD25med/HLADR+) (r = -0.04524; p = 0.5787).  There was also no significant difference in the mean percentage expression of CD3+ T cells (73.7%) in S. mansoni single infection and S. mansoni and malaria co-infection (76.1%) (p=0.1572).  Similarly, no significant statistical difference was found in either the mean percentage expression of CD4+ T cells in S. mansoni single infection (55.4%) and S. mansoni and malaria co infection (55.4%) (p=0.9958) or in the Treg (CD3+/CD4+/CD25hi).  The mean percentage expression of CD3+/CD4+/CD25hi was 1.57 in S. mansoni single infection and 1.67 in S. mansoni and malaria co-infection (p=0.5125).  Children with Schistosoma mansoni and P. falciparum malaria however showed significantly reduced expression of activated T cells (CD3+/CD4+/CD25med/HLA-DR+) (p=0.0173).  Similarly, expression of Treg cell with memory (CD3+/CD4+/CD25hi/CD45RO) was significantly lower in children with S. mansoni and P. falciparum double infections compared to those with S. mansoni infection alone (p=0.003).  Thus schistosomiasis and malaria have deleterious effects on the host, both as single infections or double infections.  These findings suggest that parasitic diseases such as schistosomiasis and malaria that often co-exist together have major effects on development of immunity to either of them and that control of schistosomiasis may have additional benefits with respect to the malaria epidemic in Sub-Saharan Africa.  Hence integrated control of parasitic diseases is the way forward.

Supervisors:
Dr. Michael M. Gicheru
Prof. Zipporah W. Ng'ang'a
Dr. Diana M.S. Karanja


OMMEH SHEILA CECILY (M.SC.), Biochemistry & Biotechnology           
GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS AT CANDIDATE GENES FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE IN CHICKEN: A COMPARISON BETWEEN INDIGENOUS, COMMERCIAL AND WILD CHICKEN POPULATIONS

Viral diseases affecting chicken, like Marek's disease and Avian Influenza, are currently causing tremendous losses in the industry and greatly impacting the livelihoods of the small scale farmers in the least developed countries. There is no effective cure or vaccine to control these diseases. It is believed that domestication and commercialization of poultry may have led to the loss of genetic variability at innate immune genes with commercial populations more susceptible to disease compared to indigenous and wild populations. The main objective of this study was to identify and assess DNA polymorphisms present at innate immune candidate genes for genetic resistance to avian viral diseases. Two candidate genes were shortlisted from the literature: the BLB2 major gene has been associated with Marek's disease resistance and Mx gene is a putative candidate gene towards resistance to avian influenza. Species homologs of these two genes were obtained from GenBank and analyzed with the PAML package to detect possible signatures of selection over evolutionary time (dN/dS). PCR followed by sequencing was carried out on both genes with PCR optimization for Mx gene being successful. Seventeen populations comprising commercial, indigenous and wild populations were analyzed for allele, genotype and haplotype frequencies. HWE, diversity indices, and population divergence was analyzed to detect possible recent signatures of selection in different populations. Nine SNPs were discovered in a partial segment of the Mx gene amplified. The frequency of the A SNP allele at Mx position 299 of the amplified gene segment corresponding to codon 631 in the Mx protein that encodes resistance to avian influenza was the highest in the wild population. The distribution of the alleles at this locus was found to be due to drift and not selection for disease resistance towards avian influenza. Seven loci of the Mx gene segment had some population groups deviating significantly from HWE. Likewise haplotypes from the Indian and East African subcontinents deviated significantly from HWE. The East African subcontinent had the highest diversity as well as the highest haplotypes. Haplotype 1 and 5 are the possible ancestral haplotypes. There was some geographic correlation found between haplotypes and avian influenza outbreaks. This result suggests that the haplotype would be more defining towards disease resistance as compared to a single SNP studied. Tests for signatures of selection on the Mx gene, using population differentiation tests show evidence of recent signals of positive selection (selective sweeps, genetic hitchhiking and population differentiation) in the wild populations. Signatures for selection tests based on species divergence for both the Mx and BLB2 genes show amino acid sites in the functional domains of the two proteins across all species under positive selection.  In conclusion, both genes studied show evidence of adaptive evolution. Further work needs to be carried out on both candidate genes with more sequence information on a longer gene fragment, in a larger sample and population size in order to confirm these first results and pave way for more studies.
       
Supervisors:
Dr. Daniel Masiga
Prof. Han Jianlin
Dr. Olivier Hanotte


ODIANGO ROSELYNE AJWAN'G (M.Sc), Exercise Recreation & Sport Science

EFFECTIVENESS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMME ON HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS OF THE PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED PUPILS: A CASE OF JOYLAND SPECIAL SCHOOL, KISUMU

In this study, the health-related fitness levels of the persons with physical disabilities who participated in an eight-week physical education programme were measured using the project UNIQUE physical fitness test battery of Winnick and Short (1985). The sample comprised 18 boys and girls from classes five, six and seven. Out of the 34 subjects initially sampled for the study 3 did not complete all the tests due to sickness. Data was therefore analysed for 31 subjects i.e. 17 boys and 14 girls for consistency (N = 31). Pre-test and post-test design was used in this study. A pre test was carried out two weeks after opening the school and a post-test eight weeks later at the end of the treatment period.  The data collected was descriptively analysed and one-way ANOVA was computed to determine the significance of difference between pre and post-test means of the dependent variables under investigation by gender and across the ages. The null hypotheses were rejected at p < 0.05 level of significance. The findings on the health-related fitness status of the participants showed they had a lower fitness level at pre-test compared to the post-test. This study established that in cardio- respiratory endurance, abdominal strength endurance and upper body strength boys performed better than girls. In low-back flexibility and resting heart rate both boys and girls demonstrated an improvement at all ages. The overall findings of the study established that there were significant improvements on cardio-respiratory endurance, low-back flexibility, and abdominal strength endurance. However, improvements on upper body strength and body composition were not statistically significant at p < 0.05 level. The result of the findings showed that physical education improves health related fitness of persons with physical disabilities. The study recommends that the programme can be used for the purpose of enhancing the persons with physical disabilities health status at all levels of the education system. The policy makers, curriculum developers at KIE, adapted teacher training institutions should review the adapted physical education curriculum with a view to including more intense activities which can promote the health of persons with physical disabilities. Physical Education programmes should be encouraged in all the schools involving persons with physical disabilities. The study suggest that a study be carried out to establish fitness levels of persons with physical disabilities including larger samples from primary, secondary and university levels, there is need to replicate the current study on other categories of special needs groups.

Supervisors:
Dr. Njororai W.W. Simiyu
Prof. Edwin.E.K. Wamukoya


FARIDAH HUSSEIN WERE (M.SC), Chemistry

USE OF HUMAN NAILS AS A BIO-INDICATOR OF HEAVY METALS OVERLOAD IN CHILDREN

Metal pollution and its health effects present a challenge currently facing developing countries.  Hair and nail were suggested as more attractive biomarkers among various biopsy materials (teeth, bone, urine, blood and other body fluids) in assessing human metal environmental exposure especially in developing countries because the analysis is economical and not susceptible to contaminations.  Recent studies have indicated increasing levels of Pb and Cd in urban and agricultural areas.  Studies have identified children as a special risk group as absorption and toxicity of toxic metals is inversely proportional to the age.  Absorption of these metals in their gastrointestinal tract also depends on nutritional factors and interaction with other dietary components such as those of Zn, Fe and Ca.  This study was therefore set to evaluate the concentration of Pb, Ca, Zn, Cd and Fe in the nails of children (n=200) under the age of six years as bio-indicators of risk exposure.  The concentrations of these metals were compared in toenails and fingernails samples of children (n=33).  The sampling covered schools in both urban and rural settings.  Factors that were suspected to influence the accumulation of Pb and Cd in children were obtained using a questionnaire.  The atomic absorption spectrometry was used to determine the concentrations of the metals.  The heavy metal levels in fingernails of children in urban areas were significantly higher than those of rural areas (P < 0.05; df = 168).  The mean levels in urban areas were 27.5±1.8 µg/g Pb and 0.73±0.08 µg/g Cd while those of rural areas were 19.7±0.9 µg/g Pb and 0.44±0.06 µg/g Cd.  The correlation results indicated that high levels of Pb in the fingernail samples negatively correlated with Zn and Fe (R = -0.256 Zn; -0.188 Fe) but not Ca levels while high levels of Cd had a negative relationship with Fe (R = -0.241) only.  Other factors that were found to have significant influence were socio-economic background, dietary habits and environmental risk exposure.  The results also showed that the school location had more influence on the heavy metals level than the area of residence.  The children in a school near the highway were found to have a mean of 34.4±3.5 µg/g Pb as compared to those whose residence was near the highway (31.6±2.8 µg/g Pb), implying that the contaminants are from a common source.  The study established that the mean metal levels were generally higher in the toenail than in fingernail samples.  However, the difference was not significant (P > 0.05), therefore either the toenail or the fingernail could be used as bio-indicator.  The association of toxic metals in the nails of children with environmental exposure and nutritional factors implies that policies and strategies to reduce the heavy metal levels should be implemented and reinforced to address the health issues affecting children in this country.  This could be facilitated by improving the conditions of the schools and residential areas and sensitizing the general public on nutrition and effects of heavy metals.

Supervisors:
Dr. Jane Murungi
Prof. Wilson Njue





NAOMI   NJOKI    WAIGANJO (M.Sc), Zoological Sciences


DEVELOPMENT AND COMPARISON OF CAPTURE ENZYME- LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY AND INDIRECT IMMUNOFLUORESCENT TEST IN DETECTION OF NAIROBI SHEEP DISEASE VIRUS. 

Nairobi Sheep Disease (NSD) is caused by Nairobi Sheep Disease Virus (NSDV) of the genus Nairovirus of the Bunyaviridae family. The diagnosis of Nairobi Sheep Disease relies on the inoculation of tissue culture with suspensions of infected samples followed by identification of the virus using indirect immuno-fluorescent assay. The tests have a number of drawbacks including low specificity, visual reading of results which requires highly skilled expertise and the need for tissue culture facilities. This study was designed to develop capture ELISA in order to improve the diagnosis of Nairobi Sheep Disease in infected sheep. Nairobi Sheep Disease Virus was inoculated into baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) cells, harvested and purified through sucrose gradient method in an Ultra centrifuge at 4ºC. The purified Nairobi Sheep Disease Virus was titrated to determine the best working titer for immunization of animals. The purified virus was subjected to IIFA test and fluorescence indicated the presence of Nairobi Sheep Disease Virus. The animals immunized were rabbits and goats which were used for production of antibodies for C-ELISA test. C-ELISA was set-up using anti-goat sera as the primary antibody, purified Nairobi Sheep Disease Virus as antigen and anti-rabbit sera as the secondary antibody. A 1:400 dilution was established as best dilution for true positive and negative samples. Twenty samples cryopreserved at -70ºC, obtained from KARI were tested using both IIFA and C-ELISA test. The diagnostic specificity of the developed C-ELISA was estimated from 20 samples. Out of the twenty samples tested, four (20%) for Nairobi Sheep Disease Virus using C-ELISA and five (25%) were positive using IIFA. The four positive samples from the two tests were from the same samples. False positive (5%) samples were picked by IIFA, which was confirmed by tissue culture technique. The level of agreement between developed C-ELISA and IIFA used as a gold test was 95%, and the Kappa index was 0.86. The perfect agreement indicated by Kappa values is an indication that both tests can be used. However, C-ELISA is a better test in that it is more flexible and less subjective. The sensitivity and specificity of C-ELISA was estimated at 80% and 100% respectively. In conclusion, the high diagnostic specificity of the developed C- ELISA can be adapted to test a large number of samples over short periods of time. The test can be useful during outbreaks of Nairobi Sheep Disease without need for tissue culture facilities. The newly developed C-ELISA would facilitate epidemiological studies on Nairobi Sheep Disease   infections and enable the diagnosis in the field.

Supervisors:    Dr. Zipporah Ng'ang'a
        Dr. Yatinder S. Binepal



WINFRED W. NDEGE  (M.A), Geography

THE EFFECTS OF ECOTOURISM ON COMMUNITY'S LIVELIHOOD IN KAJIADO DISTRICT, KENYA

Conservation of natural resources is a common policy in most of the world communities. The recent concept of community participation in conservation is increasingly been introduced in many countries. This is due to the fact that local communities are the main custodians of natural resources and hence should play a role in management of the resources. Ecotourism is one of the conservation strategies that emphasises on community participation and decision making in the management of the natural resources. The main principle behind ecotourism is enhancing conservation of natural resources, while at the same time ensuring that the community experience benefits from the same.

This paper has sought to examine the benefits, which the local community of the Kajiado District derives from ecotourism and also whether the strategy achieves its goal of ensuring local participation. It further explores the ways in which ecotourism acts as an alternative livelihood option.

The paper concludes that ecotourism as a conservation strategy not only ensures conservation of natural resources but also offers the members of the community an alternative livelihood option. Furthermore, ecotourism enhances the local participation in decision making and management of the resources. The proposed recommendation is that ecotourism should be introduced in many parts of the country to ensure that conservation of natural resources is achieved while on the other hand it plays a role in poverty reduction especially in the Arid and Semi-Arid lands.

Supervisors:
Dr. J.O. Obando
Dr I.Mahiri










SUSAN  MORAA ONUONGA (PH.D), Economics
AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ENERGY UTILIZATION IN THE KENYAN MANUFACTURING SECTOR

The overall purpose of this study was to analyze the factors that influence energy utilization in Kenya's manufacturing sector and to determine the extent of substitution possibilities between energy inputs and  other non-energy factors of production within the Kenyan manufacturing sector over the 1970- 2005 period. The Kenya manufacturing sector is a major consumer of commercial energy in Kenya. It is the second largest user of petroleum products and the largest user of electricity. There is hardly any evidence that shows that the sector uses biofuels. The analysis of price and non-price variables that affect the use of energy within this sector is necessary for designing policy measures that can lead to energy conservation. Information on the degree of energy substitution is important in predicting the effects of energy shortages on manufactured output and industrial employment. This study used the translog model to analyze total factor demands and inter-fuel substitutions. Estimation was done in two stages. First, the sub-energy model was estimated and an aggregate energy index computed. In the second stage, the total factor cost shares were analyzed using the estimated energy price index as an instrumental variable. Estimation in all stages was done by the use of Maximum Likelihood Method. In divergence from the previous studies in Kenya, time series properties of the data were fully investigated before model estimation was done. The study found that, price of energy, cross price, output, technology, price of capital and unexpected events (droughts, U.S.A`s  attack on Iraq in 2003, and multiparty elections) influenced the sector's use of energy. The results for inter-fuel model indicated that demand for electricity and oil in the Kenyan manufacturing sector were price inelastic and that oil and electricity are substitutes. The fuel price and the cross price elasticities were found to be small but statistically significant. These results imply that manipulation of the fuel prices alone cannot achieve much in controlling the use of energy in the Kenyan manufacturing sector. Limited substitution possibilities between electricity and oil in this sector were found. Small substitution possibilities between energy and non-energy inputs were also detected. The results for the total factor cost shares showed that demand for energy and labour were price inelastic while that one of capital had a unitary elasticity. The results further showed that energy, labour and capital were substitutes, but the degrees of substitution among the factors were found to be very low, ranging from 0.07 to 0.75. This suggested that costs of production within the sector might rise significantly as a result of the price increase of the inputs, especially of energy.

Supervisors:    Prof. Martin N. Etyang
        Prof. Germano Mwabu



JOSIAH NJIRU GITARI (Ph.D), Environmental Sciences

DETERMINATION OF FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFICIENCY OF LEGUME GREEN MANURES FOR MAIZE PRODUCTION IN EMBU, KENYA

Land productivity in the central highlands of Kenya is mainly constrained by low and declining soil fertility. In the maize-based farming systems, continuous cultivation without adequate soil fertility enhancement measures has led to a deterioration of land quality resulting in low agricultural yields and degraded soils. Herbaceous legumes can provide an alternative to commercial fertilizers and animal manures. This study explored the use of these legumes in Embu District - situated within the central highlands of Kenya. In order to achieve this objective a survey and four field experiments were conducted to: (1) Validate farmers' knowledge and practices in soil fertility and use of plant residues; (2) Determine the performance of maize and green manure herbaceous legumes under different intercropping densities and relay-cropping regimes; (3) Investigate the relative efficiency of different legume residue management techniques and determine the need for mineral nitrogen (N) supplementation and (4) Determine the role of low quality plant residues as agents for slowing down the fast-decomposing legume residues to improve N synchrony for maize growth. The study consisted of one survey and four on-station field experiments. The survey involved a total of 134 small-scale farmers cutting across 5 major agro-ecological zones of the 30 km transect of the district. About 87 per cent of all the farmers in the district were affected by the problems of low soil fertility in their farms. Farmers gave soil colour and structure as some of the visual soil fertility assessment indicators used to determine soil fertility status in their farms but the most pronounced and elaborate local indicators seemed to be the dominance of certain weed flora. Soil pH and exchangeable bases (Ca++ and Mg++) were the most sensitive laboratory soil parameters that corroborated farmers' perceptions and knowledge of soil fertility. Results of the field experiments showed that it is feasible to intercrop maize with any of the three green manure legume species, namely, mucuna [Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Var. utilis (Wright) Bruck], crotalaria [Crotalaria ochroleuca G. Don] and lablab [Lablab purpureus (L) Sweet cv. Rongai]. Relay-cropping these green manure legumes (GML) beyond the second week after maize emergence had a significant reduction on legume biomass production possibly due to reduced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) under the maize canopy. Intercropped GML intercepted less than 30 per cent of the total incident radiation. Nonetheless, intercropping of maize and GML greatly improved land productivity giving relative yield total (RYT) values of between 1.0 and 1.5. Incorporation or surface mulching of the GML residues gave similar maize yield responses that was about double that of the control (no residues). Supplementation of the GML residues (raised in situ) with mineral N was only beneficial if the quantities incorporated were below 2.0 Mg ha-1. Maize grain yield after mucuna, crotalaria and lablab residues alone (no mineral N supplemented) was 2.5, 2.3 and 1.6 times higher, respectively, than those of the control. Soil N mineralization reached a peak 4 weeks after planting (WAP) and declined thereafter until 8 WAP before picking up again for the remainder of the season. Seasonal mineral N levels ranged between 40 to 128 kg N ha-1. Plots treated with GML residues gave significantly higher total N uptake than the untreated plots. Over the 3 year period, legume residue incorporation resulted in a slight reduction (0.9-1.8%) in soil bulk density, a small increase in the soil total N but no change in the soil pH. Addition of low quality residues (maize stover) to any of the three GML residues did not affect N release but appeared to enhance their performance. Soil mineralization and maize N uptake was not affected by the addition of low quality residues to the GML residues but resulted in a small increase in the total soil N and pH. However, addition of large quantities of these low quality residues (6.0 Mg ha-1) significantly increased the soil organic carbon by 13 per cent and also decreased the soil bulk density by 8.3 per cent when compared to the absolute control with no residues added.
  
Supervisors:    Prof. Daniel N. Mugendi
        Dr. James B.Kung'u
        Dr. Joseph G. Mureithi
        Prof. Charles K.K.Gachene


BRENDA NEKESA ODUOR (M.A.), Geography

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF QUARRYING IN NAIROBI AND ITS ENVIRONS

This study investigated the socio-economic and geomorphological effects of quarrying in Nairobi and its environs with the aim of providing recommendations that strengthen policy implementation relating to quarrying, risk reduction and environmental protection. The objectives of the study were to investigate the socio-economic aspects of quarrying, to compare socio-economic aspects of quarrying based on various technologies, to investigate the environmental impacts of quarrying and to assess the geomorphological effects of quarrying based on varying technology. Data collection involved use of questionnaires, interviews, participant observation and field measurement. The target groups were quarry workers, quarry owners and people living within 1 kilometre radius of the quarries. Within the quarries, measurements were carried out on soil depth, slope angle, slope height and excavation depth. Primary data on socio-economic aspects was analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, totals, percentages and cross tabulation). Correlations between health variables and distance from the quarry were established. Where necessary, the data was subjected to the chi-square test and the t-test. Assessment of geomorphological effects was undertaken using checklists based on surface instability indicators. The study showed that quarrying is a significant socio-economic activity providing employment to school dropouts, especially those with below ten years of schooling. It also generates income for quarry owners and land owners who lease out land for quarrying. It pays a significant wage when compared to the government minimum wage. Quarrying indirectly provides employment in the transport industry and promotes other small scale economic activities such as food vending, hawking and development of cheap rental housing where it takes place. The terms of employment in large and small scale quarries differ significantly as revealed by the chi-square and t-tests. Quarrying, however, poses certain health risks to the quarry workers and to those living in the quarry environs. The severity of these risks varies with the size of the quarry and the distance from the quarry as was shown by the computed Pearson's Correlation Coefficient (r2) computed. Geomorphologically, the study revealed that quarrying has modified landscapes. Geomorphological processes such as erosion, mass movements and weathering have been accelerated with increased likelihood of hazards in these areas. Processes like these varied from site to site depending on the geology. An assessment of surface stability indicators using a check list revealed that Ngong and Mwiki quarry sites were approaching greater instability while the Embakasi site was more stable. The study recommends first that there should be greater government involvement in monitoring quarrying activities and establishing more effective legislation that ensures adherence to government policy regarding environmental protection and protection of human life and health within quarries and quarry environs. Secondly, that community members, landowners and concession holders be involved in finding viable solutions to the problems posed by quarrying. Thirdly, that proper town planning decisions on the use of disused quarry environs be undertaken after assessing the degree of environmental damage caused in these areas, especially the effects on surface stability.

Supervisors:    Dr. Joy Obando
                    Dr. Ishmael O. Mahiri



MOKUA GLADYS NYAMOITA (M.Sc), Chemistry

ANTI-LARVAL COMPOUNDS FROM VITEX SCHILIEBENII AND VITEX PAYOS

Over two billion people in tropical countries are at risk from mosquito-borne diseases such as dengue fever, hemorrhagic fever, malaria and filariasis.  The search for effective vaccines against these diseases is still in progress.  It is estimated that US $ 2 billion is spent on malaria control and treatment programmes in Africa annually.  The problem has become increasingly difficult to manage because of the spread of resistance to anti-malarial drugs by the parasites resulting in increased severity of the disease.  Protection from mosquito bites is still the most important measure to control the disease.  However, vector resistance to insecticides is a recurring problem and a threat to malaria control programmes.  The safety and efficacy of N, N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET), which is the most potent of the modern synthetic repellents, is questionable.  Controlling mosquitoes at larval stage is an additional effort that man has put in place to try and combat malaria menace.  During the past two decades, considerable progress has been made in the development of natural and synthetic compounds, which are capable of interfering with the process of growth, development and metamorphosis of the target mosquito species: insect growth regulators (IGRs).  Several phytochemicals such as azadirachtin have been shown to posses larvicidal/IGR activities. World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended IGR compounds such as methroprene, diflubenzuron and triflumuron.  These compounds have been approved by World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) for use against immature mosquitoes.  In this study, we carried out phytochemical investigation of anti-larval compounds from Vitex payos and Vitex schilliebenii using late third instar Anopheles gambiae larvae using WHO bioassay procedures.  Monitoring their larval mortality after every 24 hours and inhibition of adult emergence to assess the impact was done.  The crude extracts with larvicidal or anti-larval activity were subjected to chromatographic seperation techniques to isolate the active compounds, whose structures were elucidated by the conventional spectroscopic techniques.  Four compounds: 20-hydroxyecdysone (2, 3, 14, 20, 22, 25-hexahydroxycholest-7-en-6-one (80) (VSCE 2), 22-epi-20-hydroxyecdysone (82) (VSCE 3), stigmast-5-en-ol (118) (VSH 2), stigmaterol (133) (VSH 1), were isolated from Vitex schiliebenii, while five compounds: VPH 1, VPH 2, stigmasterol (133) (VPH 3), secoisolariciresonol (134) GF/CE/1 and GF/CE/2 were isolated from Vitex payos.  Four compounds VSCE 2, VSCE 3, VSH 1 and VSH 2, were assayed for IGR activity. They exhibited 100 % inhibition of emergence and caused morphological deformation in some pupae of Anopheles gambiae at 50 ppm, resulting in larval-pupal intermediates with the heads of pupae and the abdomens of larvae.  Most adults from larvae treated with the test compounds died within 48 hours of emergence.  The compounds showed delayed larval mortality at lower doses (1-5 ppm), which indicated effective developmental inhibition potential.

Supervisors:
Prof. Isaiah O. Ndiege
Prof Hassanali A
Dr. Paul K. Tarus


FIDENSIO KINYAMU NDEGWA (M.Sc), Plant & Microbial Siences

USE, CONSERVATION AND HARVESTING OF MEDICINAL PLANTS BY THE OGIEK OF EAST MAU FOREST, NAKURU DISTRICT, KENYA.

A survey of medicinal plants was carried out in East Mau Forest and questionnaires were used to interview 427 members of Ogiek community, who were above eighteen years of age, on the use of medicinal plants. Plant samples were collected, preserved and later identified at the East African Herbarium. One hundred 20x20m quadrats were marked out in the entire study area. In each quadrat, the number and type of medicinal plants and the harvesting methods were investigated. The data, which was obtained from the quadrats and from the questionnaires were analyzed statistically using percentages to determine the use, conservation status and also to determine whether they use destructive harvesting techniques. One hundred and nineteen (119) medicinal plant species were found to be in use. Out of the 427 respondents, 98.6 % indicated that they use medicinal plants. This indicated a very high dependence on medicinal plants for their health care. The species diversity of medicinal plants was generally low, with Simpson's Diversity Index of 0.2456 and 0.0894 in stations A (near Nessuit Shopping Centre) and B (near Mariashoni Shopping Centre) respectively. The relative abundance was generally high with 28.3% and 37.7% medicinal plants in station A and B respectively, with values greater than 0.5. This indicated that the medicinal plants were still abundant. Hypoestes forskalii and H. aristata were the most abundant medicinal plant species in station A, while Dombeya torrida was the most abundant in station B. The harvesting techniques of most medicinal plants were found to be non-destructive, with 74.29 % medicinal plants showing selective harvesting. Only 10.77% of the respondents indicated that they conserve medicinal plants in any way. This showed that the Ogiek practiced little conservation. Chi-square was used to determine the relationship/association between: use, conservation status and harvesting techniques of medicinal plants on one hand and age and gender on the other. The results indicated that the use and conservation status were not dependent on age, with Chi-square calculated values of 3.6154 and 5.1838 respectively, although harvesting techniques were dependent on age with Chi-square calculated value of 15.90. The use, conservation status and harvesting techniques of medicinal plants were dependent on gender, with Chi-square calculated values of 3.8915, 5.4591 and 5.1104 respectively. Ninety three (93) diseases were documented during the study. The plant parts used mostly were roots (29 %), leaves (23.2 %) and stem bark (15.6 %). The diseases treated with the largest number of medicinal plant species were: stomach problems 17 %, malaria 6.7 % and colds 6.1%. This research work will assist the future Ogiek generations and other workers because the medicinal plants knowledge of the Ogiek will now be in a documented form and will also provide baseline data for further research. Policy makers, who include the Forest Department, may use the findings of this work to advice the Ogiek on the future of their medicinal plants. The results support the hypothesis that Ogiek use medicinal plants for management of diseases, that some medicinal plants are over-exploited and that the use, conservation status and destructive harvesting techniques were related to gender, although only harvesting techniques had a relationship with age. Based on the findings of this work, conservation strategies need to be put in place to protect the most important and most threatened medicinal plant species.

Supervisors:    Dr. Paul K. Mbugua
        Dr. Grace W. Gatheri



MUGAMBI DAVID M. GILBERT (M.Sc), Environmental Sciences

VALUATION OF RECREATIONAL BENEFITS AND ASSESSMENT OF TOURISTS' SATISFACTION IN KAKAMEGA FOREST, KENYA

Forests have both use and non-use values and play an important role in promoting socio-cultural and economic development of a country. Forest provides a good habitat for wildlife and varied species biodiversity. They are also a major tourist destination as they provide recreational services. One example of such forest is Kakamega forest (KF) in Western Kenya. This forest is divided into Kakamega Forest National Reserve and Kakamega Forest Reserve which are managed by Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) and Forest Department (FD), currently Kenya Forest Service respectively. The purpose of this study was to apply the Zonal Travel Cost Method (TCM) to estimate the recreational value Kakamega forest. Further, the study aimed to establish the relationship between the destinations attributes and tourists' overall level of satisfaction.

To achieve these objectives the researcher relied on two sources of data. First, to estimate the recreational value using the TCM, data on tourists' numbers and the countries of origin was collected from past records in Kenya Wildlife Services and Forest Department offices, travel agents and other government offices. Secondly, to establish the level of satisfaction 300 questionnaires were administered to the tourists who visited KF from August 2005 to November 2005. The data were sorted, coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) software. The data were presented using tables, frequencies and percentages. Correlations and regressions analysis were carried out to establish the relationship between the destination attributes and tourists' satisfaction. The result from this study shows that KWS has higher recreational value of Ksh. 280 Million (US$ 3.7 Million) than FD with Ksh. 191 Million (US$ 2.6 Million). The satisfaction results shows that KF is a potential tourists destination offering a satisfying experience to tourists (mean satisfaction = 5.38).

The results show that twenty nine destination attributes determine the tourist overall level of satisfaction while visiting KF. These factors relate to key hospitality variables like tangibles, responsibilities, reliability, assurance and empathy. Further, the results show that the tourists' satisfaction relates to sources of information about the forest and the interests for visiting the forest. These findings are important to tourist planners, managers and promoters. Based upon the results the study concludes by giving several recommendations on promotion of conservation of KF, while increasing tourists' satisfaction.

Supervisors:    Prof. Daniel Mugendi
        Dr. John Mburu


NG'ENDO ROSSA  (M.Sc), Zoology

MORPHOLOGY, BIOACOUSTICS, AND TADPOLE CHARACTERS OF THE FROG GENUS PTYCHADENA IN TAITA HILLS, KENYA

There are about 20 different species of amphibians known in Taita Hills, Kenya, majority of which have been identified up to species level.  However, the taxonomic status of Ptychadenidae in these hills is poorly understood, and needs to be established. Different sets of characters have been used in the taxonomy of anurans worldwide, with external morphology and bioacoustics being the most widely used. Some sets of characters may be useful in identification of some species and not others. For instance, the external morphology of Ptychadena in eastern Africa (and elsewhere) exhibits taxonomic problems mainly because of poor definition of characters and understanding on intraspecific variation. Larval morphological features too are helpful in distinguishing species in many anuran species. But again our knowledge of Ptychadena tadpoles is still scanty. Bioacoustics have been used to study Ptychadena species in western Africa, though knowledge on vocalisation is poor in East African Ptychadena. On this basis, this study sought to establish the taxonomic status of the Genus Ptychadena in Taita Hills, compare the results with data from other regions and to provide a standardized species identification by definition of Operational taxonomic Units (OTUs). Three taxonomic tools, namely adult morphology, bioacoustics and tadpole characters were utilized for the identification to determine the Ptychadena OTUs. A total of 113 adult and 55 tadpole specimens of Ptychadena from Taita Hills were examined for morphological characters, and their morphometrics were taken. Analyses included a combination of external morphology, and tadpole descriptions using standardized statistical tools such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA). For bioacoustics, recorded calls were digitized, and different call properties measured and compared using computer software Cool Edit 2000. Adult morphometric analysis revealed that the OTU type, sex, and individual size were some factors responsible for variation between and within OTUs 1 and 2.  However, differences were more distinguishable after morphological examination and analysis based on absence/ and or presence of particular non morphometric character. Morphological examination of the tadpoles revealed little or no variation in colour, oral disc structures, and labial tooth row formula and therefore could not delineate the respective OTU types. Acoustic comparison was not possible since no acoustic data was recorded from OTU 1. The study concludes by recommending further research on the tadpoles, which could then form a taxonomic basis for distinguishing between OTUs

Supervisors:    Prof. C.K.P.O. Ogol
        Dr. Eunice Kairu
        Dr. Stefan Lotters



KIPLAGAT ANDREW KIPKOSGEY, Environmental Sciences

ASSESSING CONSUMER DEMAND AND ECONOMIC VALUE OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS IN KAKAMEGA FOREST, KENYA

Forests play a very important role in socio-economic and cultural development of any nation, Kenya being no exception. Of major concern to this study was the economic role Kakamega forest plays in the economy of rural households. Forests are a source of non timber products (NTFPs) such as firewood, herbal medicine, pasture, thatch, fruit, and vegetables for local communities. Because rural households largely depend on NTFPs for sustenance of livelihoods, it was important that household consumption patterns be understood so as to predict how trends may evolve in future with respect to conservation. It was also important to quantify and impute value to NTFPs consumed by households in order to establish how much forest resources contribute to rural household economies.

This study analyzes the demand structure for NTFPs among rural households around Kakamega forest and quantifies their consumption. The economic value of NTFPs is also estimated using three methods: direct pricing, cost of collection and substitutes' approach. A consumer demand model, Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS), is used to analyze household demand for NTFPs and predict its determinants.

A random sample of 201 households was interviewed during the period of October-December 2006. Data collected include household characteristics, sources of NTFPs, quantities consumed per day, frequency of NTFPs extraction for household consumption, substitutes of NTFPs, unit prices and quantities consumed daily. In addition, data on distances and time taken to the forest, household value of time and forest management regimes were collected using structured questionnaires and interview schedules. The data was then sorted, coded and analyzed descriptively using a statistical package for social scientists (SPSS) to generate summaries in form of means, tables and graphs. Regression analysis on the demand model that had earlier been specified was also carried out with the aid of STATA computer package to determine factors that had significant influence on household demand for firewood.

Results indicated that households derive direct benefits that include firewood, livestock grazing, medicinal plants, cut grass, charcoal, thatch and structural materials from the forest. Firewood, medicinal plants and livestock grazing were the dominant NTFPs consumed by most households interviewed. Main substitutes for the mentioned NTFPs included charcoal, napier, conventional hospital medicine, kerosene, and iron sheets for firewood, livestock forest graze, medicinal plants, charcoal and thatch respectively. Estimates from demand analysis indicated that age of household heads, participation in conservation awareness activities and sizes of household farms influenced demand for firewood. Comparison of NTFPs value estimates revealed that the substitutes approach had the highest value followed by cost of collection, and direct pricing approach the least. It was concluded that Kakamega forest contributes immensely to rural household economies. Several recommendations with policy implications are made to promote sustainable management of the forest.

Supervisors:    Prof. Daniel Mugendi
        Dr. John Mburu



NATHAN MWEU MULI (M.Sc), Geography

RAINFALL-RUNOFF FLOOD MODELLING IN NAIROBI URBAN WATERSHED, KENYA

The main objective of this study was flood modelling in Nairobi watershed based on a rainfall-runoff process, considering urban development and its effects on the Nairobi watershed. The study area map was generated from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) developed from Survey of Kenya (SoK) topomap sheets 148/1-4 with a scale of 1:50,000, georeferenced and delineated on the basis of the natural flow boundaries. The Nairobi river Channel data base was developed through a field survey using a digital Theodolite (Topcon 500 series). The HEC-HMS model was calibrated and used to optimize, extract and process the input parameters of the Nairobi watershed. The rainfall seasons in the watershed were found to be Bimodal with a precipitation Index of 850mm. Daily historical precipitation and stream flow data obtained from Meteorological department and MOW&I were used to calibrate the model. For model calibration, 3BA29 RGS (April 1st-May 31st) 1981 stream flow data was used. Data for (April 1st-May 31st) 1982 was used for model verification. The Manning's roughness coefficient 'n' and bed slope of the channel were determined by estimation. In the HEC-HMS model; initial loss, basin losses and basin transforms were established. The model can be used to predict floods in Nairobi under the existing conditions similar to Scenarios simulated. Among the parameters, SCS lag time was the most sensitive parameters. Its variation depicted land use changes.  The Watershed has a composite Curve Number (CN) value of 89 and 55 % imperviousness. Soil survey data showed that the watershed was overlain by soils of Hydrological Soil Grouping (HSG) class C of flow infiltration rate. Scenarios were simulated to answer the “what if” question used to depict urban changes. Increased pavements, roads and buildings reduced the SCS lag time. As a result, the watershed developed a quick response to precipitation. A correlation between the observed and simulated data gave a coefficient of determination of 0.82. Flood Frequency Analysis (FFA) was carried out using the Gumbel Extreme Value type1 (EV1) statistical method. It showed that Nairobi had a 43 % chance of flooding after every 2.33 years. Development in the watershed increased the imperviousness from 55% to 60%.  The impact of this was an increased mean annual flow from 50m3/s to 345m3/s. This was a 600% increment and the present drainage cannot cope, thus making the study area to be in danger of being flooded. The Muskingum-Cunge-8 Point Routing method was used to route the flood along the Nairobi river channel. Flood waves generated recede by 3 % and take 2 hrs and 45minutes to travel from inlet to the outlet. The Questionnaire data was analyzed using the (SPSS) 11.5. The stakeholders were of the opinion that; the drainage system was poorly maintained, inadequate and it required rehabilitation. This was one of the main causes of flooding in Nairobi. The HEC-HMS model simulations generated threshold peak flows which can be used for planning, design of cross drainage works and other storm water drains in Nairobi city and other Kenyan cities. It can be customized for flood prediction in other urban watersheds. The city requires surface and subsurface drainage to remove water pools after long and short duration storms. There is need for structural and non structural measures to mitigate for floods and to install the Best Management Practices (BMPs) to reduce flooding potential in the city. Drainage rehabilitation, fresh planning and design are required for the city to enable it cope with the increased development.

Supervisors:     Dr.  Christopher.M. Ondieki    
            Dr.Wambua Kaluli



OSUMBAH BEATRICE AMONDI    (M.Ed), Ed. Admin. Plan & Curr. Dev.

REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN TOP EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP POSITIONS: A CASE OF MINISTRY OF EDUCATION HEADQUARTERS, NAIROBI - KENYA

Under-representation of women in top educational management and leadership positions has had negative effects on girls' education, curriculum and national economic and social growth. The study therefore sought to investigate factors causing under representation of women in top educational management and leadership positions in the Ministry of Education headquarters. The study was guided by five questions which were: What is the distribution of educational personnel at the M.O.E. Headquarters by gender? What skills are important for top educational management and leadership positions and what gender possess them? What personality characteristics are important for top educational management and leadership positions and which gender possess them? What individual, organizational, and socio-cultural factors cause under representation of women at the top educational management and leadership positions? What strategies would improve the representation of women in top educational management and leadership positions? Descriptive survey design, utilizing quantitative and qualitative approach was used in the study. Stratified random sampling was used to categorise the target population of 161 educational personnel by level of management and gender. Simple random sampling was then used to get a study sample of 76 officers. Women in Management and Leadership Questionnaire and Women in Management and Leadership Interview Guide were used to gather information from the respondents. The questionnaire was piloted at the M.O.E. Headquarters before the study. Analysis of staff returns documents was done to get the numerical representation of the personnel by gender. Data were analysed using SPSS computer software employing descriptive statistics such as percentages, frequency distribution, mean scores, and standard deviations. The findings showed that 33.3 percent and 32.1 percent of top and middle management positions respectively were occupied by females at the M.O.E. headquarters. This was despite the fact that both male and female genders were rated 'high' in possession of skills and personality characteristics the respondents considered important for top educational management and leadership positions. This under-representation was due to various organisational, socio-cultural and individual barriers in that descending order. Strategies to improve the representation of women in top educational management and leadership therefore focused on the girl child in school, women themselves, society, government policies, the Education Act and the country's constitution.

Supervisors:
Dr.  George Adino Onyango
Dr.  John Akhamwa Shiundu


MONICAH WANJIKU MUCHERU-MUNA (Ph.D), Environmental Science

EXPLORING NITROGEN REPLENISHMENT OPTIONS FOR IMPROVING SOIL PRODUCTIVITY IN SITES WITH VARIED SOIL FERTILITY STATUS IN THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF KENYA

Declining land productivity is a major problem facing smallholder farmers in central Kenya. This decline is caused by low soil fertility caused by continuous cultivation without adequate addition of external nutrients. Two experiments were established during the 2004 short rains in two distinct agro-ecological areas (Mucwa and Mukuuni – sub humid & Machang'a – semi arid) in the central highlands of Kenya with an aim of enhancing soil productivity. The 1st experiment evaluated biomass transfer systems in Machang'a and Mucwa (two sites, one with fertile soils and the other with less fertile soils). Effects of organic sources (tithonia, lantana, mucuna, calliandra and manure) and combinations with mineral N fertilizer on maize yield, soil chemical properties, economics returns, soil mineral N, N uptake and fertilizer N equivalencies were determined. The 2nd experiment was an intercrop established in Mukuuni and Machang'a to determine the contribution of legumes (bean, cowpea and groundnut), plant spacing (conventional and MBILI) and P fertilizer on overall productivity of the intercropping system. Data was subjected to ANOVA and means separated using LSD (p < 0.05). Sole manure, sole tithonia and sole calliandra generally recorded the highest maize grain yields in Machang'a, Mucwa poor and Mucwa good sites, respectively. Generally the maize grain yields were lower in the treatments with fertilizer alone compared to the treatments with organics across the three sites in the four seasons due to the poorly distributed rainfall. The maize grain yields were higher in the sole organics compared to the integrations (organic+mineral fertilizer) in Mucwa good and poor sites, however in Machang'a, the sole organic had higher yields during the short rain seasons while the integrations recorded higher yields during the long rain seasons. There was a general decline in soil chemical properties over the seasons, even with the seasonal input application in all sites. Manure was superior in terms of improving soil chemical properties, for instance, it recorded an increase in soil pH, magnesium, potassium, calcium and nitrogen in all sites. The economic returns in all sites were low, with negative net benefits, and benefit cost ratio (BCR), which were in most cases less than one. The bulk of mineral-N found in the soil was in the form of nitrate-N in all sites, however in Machang'a the amount of ammonium-N was relatively high due to the drier condition of the soils in that site. In seasons when rainfall was well distributed, the N uptake was relatively high with most of the mineral N being taken up during 0-12 weeks after planting (WAP). High fertilizer N equivalencies of manure, calliandra, tithonia and mucuna were reported in all sites, suggesting that the organics have beneficial roles other than the addition of soil N. In the intercrop experiment, neither legumes nor maize responded to P application in Mukuuni while legume yield was increased by an average of 40% and maize yields more than doubled with P application in Machang'a. In both sites, legume yields tended to be higher when planted at the conventional intercrop, irrespective of legume species or P application; though not consistently significant in all seasons. Maize yields were significantly higher with conventional spacing when intercropped with groundnut, while in MBILI spacing, highest yields were observed for maize intercropped with beans. Generally net benefits, BCR and return to labour were highest when P fertilizer was not applied in both the MBILI and conventional intercrops in Machang'a and Mukuuni. In Machang'a, there were no economic advantages of MBILI over the conventional intercrop, while in Mukuuni MBILI intercrop had more economic benefits than the conventional intercrop especially in the maize/bean intercrop. The N equivalencies were very low both in the MBILI and conventional intercrops, actually in most cases the N equivalencies were negative. The role of organics was well displayed in the study area, which is prone to poor distributed rainfall, therefore further research should be carried out to explore issues of soil moisture conservation.

Supervisors:   
Prof. Daniel Mugendi
Dr. James B. Kung'u


ONSERIO, NTABO GEOFFREY (M.Ed), Ed. Admin. Plan & Curr. Dev.

FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE IN MAPWORK IN THE KENYA CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (K.C.S.E) EXAMINATION IN GUCHA DISTRICT,  KENYA

The Ministry of Education has placed a lot of emphasis on the teaching of mapwork in schools.  This is reflected in the syllabus where certain aspects of mapwork are expected to be covered in forms one, two, three and four.  The climax is in the form of a compulsory question on mapwork in the KCSE geography paper one examination. In spite of the efforts put in the teaching of mapwork in all the forms, the students' results after KCSE show completely a negative picture.  According to the 1996, 2000 and 2001 KCSE reports, the analysis done in geography paper one indicates that mapwork items are poorly done.  The purpose of this study was therefore, to investigate and analyze the present practise of teaching mapwork in Kenyan Secondary Schools with particular reference to Gucha District.  Emphasis was placed on finding out the teaching-learning strategies used by the teachers in teaching mapwork, the training of teachers, the available mapwork teaching-learning facilities and how effectively they were utilized to implement the mapwork curriculum in Kenyan Schools.  The review of the related literature indicated that the performance of a student in mapwork items is linked to his or her psychological development. There was little mention on the relevancy of competent teachers and the teaching-learning resources to the teaching of mapwork.  This is the gap this study aimed to fill.  The researcher used a descriptive research design whereby four instruments were used to collect data. These were three questionnaires and one classroom observation schedule. The target population was thirty two mapwork teachers, twenty four headteachers and two hundred and sixty eight students from twenty four secondary schools sampled from a population of 96 schools in Gucha District of Kenya.  Data analysis was done by manual counting to determine frequency of each response and thereafter percentages computed.  Consequently, the findings based on the data collected were that majority of teachers preferred the lecture method of teaching to group work and discussion. The most available teaching–learning resources were printed materials.  These materials, however, did not satisfy the students demand.   It was established that majority of the students (65%) never had any recommended mapwork textbook.  The study also revealed that there is under-utilization of the available mapwork teaching–learning resources by the teachers.  From the findings, conclusions were drawn to the effect that; there is need for teachers to use more resources while teaching and more teaching–learning facilities need to be availed in all schools within the District.

Supervisors
Dr. Francis Gateru Muya           
Dr. Joseph Malusu



KAROKI BERNARD KARERU (M.Sc), Chemistry

ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF CLAYS FROM MWEA TO ASSESS THEIR VALUE AS A SOURCE OF ALUMINIUM AND CERAMIC PRODUCTS

Clays are alumino-silicate minerals which contain varying amounts of iron, magnesium,
calcium and potassium as major contaminants and, trace amounts of many other inorganic elements .This study was undertaken with two main objectives .The first was to carry out elemental analysis of clays from Mwea, Kirinyaga District, in Kenya. The second objective was to find out whether it is possible to reduce the amount of iron in these clays after somechemical treatment with mineral acids without affecting the quality of the clay. Samples for analysis were collected from various sites at different depths. The results of the study have shown that the main materials, expressed as oxides, make up nearly100% of the total mass .These are:- silica, SiO2(43-51%), alumina, Al2O3(17-22%,) Iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3(12- 16%,) , Rutile, TiO2(3.5-5.2%,), lime CaO(1.6-2.8%,), magnesium (II) oxide, MgO(1.0- 1.3%,), Manganese (ii) oxide, MnO(0.20-0.40%,), Potash ,K2O(0.15-0.4%,). Mwea clays are, therefore typical clays that could be used as a source of aluminium and aluminium compounds. Titanium was present as the mineral rutile, TiO2. If further studies could be carried out to confirm the extensiveness and depth of deposits, then this clay could be a reliable source of titanium since is recovered economically from deposits 5 % of titanium oxide. The second important finding of this study was that, the iron in the clay could not be extracted completely with mineral acids even when pre-heated to a temperature of 400oC. The iron was, however, readily extracted with concentrations of 8 M and above of the mineral acids if the clay was pre-heated to a temperature of 500oC. Unfortunately, this pretreatment also makes the aluminium in the clay readily removable and hence, the heat pretreatment actually destroys the clay. Elemental analysis was carried out using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, X-ray Fluorescence Spectrophotometry, and EDTA titrations.  These techniques were used for comparison purposes and, within experimental error; the results were in very good agreement.

Supervisors:    Prof. Naftali Mureithi
        Prof. Anthony Gachanja












ENOCK MARITA (M.P.H.)

DETERMINANTS OF HIV-VCT UTILIZATION AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN THIKA DISTRICT, KENYA

Globally, PLWHA continues to rise, despite the fact that effective prevention strategies exist. At least 95% of the new infections occur in developing countries, including Kenya. Unless effort is made to co-ordinate a massive response to the pandemic, there will be 45 million new HIV infections by 2010 in the world. This has led to new dimensions of health care delivery worldwide such as Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT). Despite its proven benefits, high knowledge of VCT and its availability, its uptake is varied and often poor. It is commonly argued that teachers in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries have relatively higher HIV prevalence rates than the adult population. AIDS is claiming teachers more quickly than they can be trained in many countries and is the leading cause of death among teachers in the SSA countries. Teachers do play a significant information dissemination role in schools and the community in general. This study was conducted in Thika District (Kenya) to establish determinants of HIV-VCT utilization among secondary school teachers. The objectives were to establish secondary school teachers' HIV-VCT utilization levels, to identify factors that motivated teachers to utilize HIV-VCT services, to identify factors that hindered teachers from utilizing the VCT service and to establish relationship between various factors and HIV-VCT utilization among the teachers. The study employed Cross-sectional survey, where quota and simple random sampling were used.  A questionnaire, interview schedule and focused group discussion guide were used to collect data. Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS software and qualitative data was described and used to illustrate the main ideas. 246 teachers were sampled; almost half were females, 13% were in private schools. HIV-VCT utilization among secondary school teachers was 30.5%. The younger and less experienced teachers were more likely to utilize HIV-VCT services than the older and more experienced ones (Likelihood ratio, P = 0.004). Private school teachers were more likely to utilize HIV-VCT services than those of the public schools (OR = 2.356, 95% CI, 1.082-5.128). Teachers who were scared by the HIV prevalence in their area were three times less likely to utilize HIV-VCT services (OR = 0.312, 95% CI limit, 0.104-0.936). The teachers who had not sought HIV-VCT service were less likely to perceive HIV-VCT services as beneficial (Likelihood ratio, P =0.027). Various factors were identified as barriers to HIV-VCT uptake; most of them were post test implicated. A number of factors that made some teachers to seek HIV-VCT services were also identified; HIV/AIDS awareness campaigns and urges 'to know status' were most cited factors. In conclusion, the teacher HIV-VCT utilization level was higher than the general population. The study identified socio-demographic and other factors that influenced use of VCT services and indeed some factors were found to be related to HIV-VCT use. It is recommended that the VCT promotion programs has to focus on enhancing positive perception of VCT services more specially; messages that aim at enhancing the use of VCT service should mainly target older teachers and alleviating barriers related to the use of VCT services. “HIV-VCT services are good let the teachers use them.”

Supervisors:    Dr. Isaac Mwanzo
Dr. Margaret Keraka


JANE KHAEMBA NAMUMBUYA (M.Ed), Special Education

VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION AND TRANSITION TO   EMPLOYMENT OF FORMER STREET YOUTH IN NAIROBI, KENYA

Despite efforts made by the government of Kenya to rehabilitate and train former street youth, their numbers in towns and cities have risen alarmingly. Reports in the media focus on those who joined the NYS in 2003 but no known study has followed them out to ascertain the effectiveness and appropriateness of the programme  which was meant to help them transit to work, since their graduation in 2005. The purpose of this study was to investigate rehabilitation and vocational education with regard to transition to work and job maintenance of trained former street youth. The objectives were to establish factors influencing transition to work, rehabilitation strategies, placement options and the effectiveness of the training package. The study was guided by Anomie theory. Anomie is a situation that arises when there is discrepancy between goals and means of achieving them. The study was carried out at the NYS headquarters in Nairobi (Ruaraka station), city centre and other parts of the city where trained former street youth and employers were traced. It employed a descriptive design. Two employers, one administrator, one coordinator of skills training and 46(20%) of the former street youth trained at the NYS were involved in the study. Purposive sampling was used in the selection of the institution, trained former street youth, employers, administrator and coordinator. Interview Guides formed the basic research instruments. To collect data, Interview Guides were administered to the former street youth, their employers, administrator, and coordinator by the researcher. Data was recorded by writing. Qualitative data was analyzed by use of the themes and the coding technique. Frequencies and percentages were also utilized in analysis of minimal quantitative data. Narrative passages, tables and charts were used to convey the findings. The findings of this study indicated a number of issues regarding the transition of the trained former street youth to employment. In effect, the findings indicated that the courses offered at the NYS were relevant to the labour market except for a few issues such as denial of choice of courses and adequate facilities. The findings also indicated that NYS had no arrangements for placement of  these graduates upon completion of their course thus encountering difficulties in securing employment In terms of job maintenance, it was found out that beyond the technical skills, one needs some personal skills to maintain the secured employment. In the light of these findings, the study recommended that recruitment be pegged on institutional training facilities' capacity and that the content of training be continually reviewed to tailor it to market needs. Also, the institutional needs to explore linkages with the various placements opportunities.

Supervisors:    Dr. Mugo J. Kabutha
        Dr. Maureen Mweru


KAHUNYO STEPHEN WAMBUGU (M.Env. Sc), Environmental Science

EVALUATION OF THE GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF EUCALYPTUS TREE HYBRIDS PLANTED IN VARIOUS AGROCLIMATIC AREAS IN KENYA

The unprecedented rate of deforestation and forest degradation in Kenya has resulted in acute wood shortage. To address this problem, eucalyptus tree hybrids clones were donated to Tree Biotechnology Project in Karura, Kenya by Mondi Forest of South Africa. To evaluate the best planting eucalyptus germplasm, five long-term trials consisting of both eucalyptus hybrid clones and the local progeny in Karura, Machakos, Kabage, Embu and Gede were studied. The study sought to establish the height and diameter growth, stem formation, self-pruning ability, straightness, branching and crown formation of the introduced eucalyptus hybrid clones and the non-hybrid eucalyptus germplasm in different sites. In each trial, 20% of the trees in each plot were selected randomly and height and diameter measurements were taken by use of a sunto and diameter tape respectively. Observations were made on stem form, crown size, branching, self-pruning and survival rate. Analysis was carried out by use of descriptive and inferential statistics. The Genstat Statistical Package was used to carry out both the ANOVA and LSD tests on both DBH and height in all eucalyptus varieties under study. In Karura site there was significant mean height growth variation between the introduced eucalyptus clones and the non-hybrid E. tereticornis and E. saligna, with the clones exhibiting, high survival rates and high level of straightness (95% and 65% respectively). E. grandis exhibited similar growth to clones but with low survival rate. In Embu, the eucalyptus hybrid GCs 642 and 15 achieved significantly high mean height than the non-hybrid varieties. Similarly, the eucalyptus hybrid clones achieved high survival rates (above 95%) compared to E. grandis, E. saligna and E. camaldulensis. In Machakos, E. grandis achieved similar mean height to eucalyptus hybrids apart from eucalyptus hybrid GC 10. Survival rate for all the eucalyptus germplasms in this site apart from E. saligna was over 85%. E. grandis attained relatively high level of straightness (90%) with eucalyptus hybrids GCs 642, 14, 15 and 581. In Kabage, Nyeri, there were no significant difference for both mean height and mean DBH (LSD 1.3 and LSD 1.67) between the non-hybrid E. grandis and hybrid GUs. The high survival rate and straightness of E. grandis was comparable to that of GU 7 (89%), GU 8 (96%) and TAG 5 (pure grandis) respectively. In Gede, significant variation in mean height was observed between progenies. However, eucalyptus hybrids GCs 785, 581, 167 and 584 achieved a significantly high mean height compared to the rest of eucalyptus germplasms. For the mean DBH, eucalyptus hybrid GCs 785, 581, 167 and 584 compared favourably with non-hybrid E. camaldulensis, hybrid GU 21 and hybrid GC 540. The survival rate was high (over 85%) for all the progenies apart from hybrid GC 796 which failed. Crown diameter for the non-hybrid progenies were small compared to those of GUs and GCs, and apart from the hybrids GC 785 and GC 167, all others achieved high branching (over 60%). From the results, the GCs performed well in height, DBH and survival rate than local land races in Karura and Embu, the E grandis exhibited exceptional performance among the local land races in all sites it was planted and GCs are the suitable progeny for a number of agro climatic zones across the country as E tereticornis comes out as the least suitable among the local land races. The study recommends aggressive extension strategy for the suitable hybrids, monitoring of their health as well as continued research and silvicultural studies to find more on their effect on hydrology and soils as well as market reliance.

Supervisors:
Dr. James B. Kung'u
Dr. Samuel C.J. Otor



MUSYOKA STEPHEN MAKALI  (M.Sc.), Chemistry

PHYTOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF ANTI-LARVAL ACTIVITY OF THE GENUS VITEX AGAINST ANOPHELES GAMBIAE

About a century ago mosquitoes were confirmed to be carriers of malaria parasites, the most serious infectious disease in the tropics.  Over 500 million clinical cases are reported, resulting in 2 million deaths annually.  Despite the extensive efforts to combat malaria over the past six decades, it still remains a scourge in more than 90 countries inhabited by 40% of the worlds' population. Hope for eradication of the disease has been frustrated by a number of challenges, such as: emergence of drug and insecticide resistant strains of Plasmodium parasites and Anopheles mosquitoes, respectively, global warming, re-introduction of vectors in areas initially free of malaria and environmental concerns.  Alternative control methods and materials that are effective against the target mosquito species, with minimum detrimental effects on the environment, are needed.  One of such methods is the application of selected botanical derivatives against the target mosquito species.  This involves the use of plant-derived repellents, insecticides, larvicides and insect growth regulator (IGRs).  The larvicides act by killing the larvae, while IGRs inhibit the growth of immature stages of the insect larvae before their emergence into adults. The present study was designed to examine the anti-larval (larvicide/IGR) activity of Vitex species, from the coastal region of Kenya, on Anopheles gambiae. Seven species of Vitex were collected for investigation. Different parts of the plants (root bark, stem bark, leaves and fruits) were air-dried and ground into fine powder. They were soaked in methanol for 7 days filtered and the extracts concentrated under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator. The crude extracts were bio-assayed against 3rd instar An. gambiae larvae. Two plant extracts (Vitex payos and Vitex strickerii) had high anti-larval and IGR potency. The extracts were subjected to bioassay-guided fractionation. The isolation and purification of bioactive compounds was done using solvent partition and chromatography: CC, PTLC, VLC and HPLC.  A total of 6 compounds: 20-hydroxyecdysone (65), stigmasterol (88), 3-hydroxy-4´,5,7-trimethoxyflavone (89), 5-hydroxy-7-methoxyfla-vanone (90), 2´,6´-dihydroxy-4´,4-dimethoxychalcone (91), 5-hydroxy-4´,7-dimethoxy-flavanone (92), were isolated. Three of the compounds (5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-flavanone (90), 20-hydroxyecdysone (65) and 3-hydroxy-4´,5,7-trimethoxyflavone (89)) showed good larvicidal activity (LD50 = 7.781, 51.59 and 54.57 ppm) against 3rd instar An. gambiae ss larvae). A new compound, 3-hydroxy-4´,5,7-trimethoxyflavone, was reported for the first time. In addition, the other two flavonoids were isolated from Vitex species for the first time. The structural elucidation of the isolated compounds was done using physical properties, (melting point, optical rotation), and spectroscopic methods (IR, UV, NMR and MS).

Supervisors:
Prof. Isaiah O. Ndiege
Prof. Ahmed Hassanali
Dr. Alex K. Machocho


NYAGA C. MACAI (M.P.H)

COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF SPINAL AND GENERAL ANAESTHESIS IN THE SURGICAL TREATMENT OF BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA IN HOSPITALS IN NAKURU MUNICIPALITY, KENYA

Anaesthesia has been cited as one of the medical practices that escalate the cost of expenditure on healthcare. In view of this, spinal anaesthesia has been proposed as a method that can lower surgical costs. However, medics in Kenya are yet to fully embrace spinal anaesthesia. The reasons for the low usage rates of the spinal anaesthesia are not well known. This study compared the cost-effectiveness of spinal anaesthesia and general anaesthesia. It also sought to establish the factors that explain the low utilization rates of spinal anaesthesia among medics in Kenya.  A survey approach was adopted in this study. The population for this study was drawn from three randomly chosen hospitals within Nakuru Municipality. Patients operated for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) within the period 1st January 2003 and 31st December 2006 in the three hospitals formed the sampling frame for this study. Seventy three such patients were identified and formed the study sample. The data for this study was collected by way of document analysis. A coding scheme was developed to gather secondary data. A focus group discussion was conducted to a sample of surgeons, anaesthetists and hospital administrators/proprietors in order to collect their perceptions on spinal and general anaesthesia. An anaesthetic complication index was then developed. This is an ordinal scale that measures the degree of post operative complications after surgery.  It has three levels beginning with three for the absence of any complication, two for one complication and one for multiple complications. The higher the score the less the post operative complications a patient has. The research instruments for this study were pre-tested on a few patients and medical staff in Naivasha Sub-District Hospital. These research tools were used to gather data by the researcher with the help of two trained research assistants. Data was coded and analyzed using the statistical software package SPSS Version 13. Student's t tests were used to compare data on the cost effectiveness of spinal anaesthesia and general anaesthesia. Finally, a ratio of the net costs to the net health outcomes of both spinal and general anaesthesia was calculated. Patients in this study had an average of 71.19 years. The average cost of anaesthetic drugs for general anaesthesia was Kshs. 2206.30, while that for spinal anaesthesia was Kshs. 1548.60. The differences in these costs were statistically significant (t = 3.87, df = 71; ρ = 0.000). Patients operated under spinal anaesthesia had a mean of 2.47 on the anaesthesia complication index, while those operated under general anaesthesia had a lower mean of 2.03. The lower complication index score obtained in general anaesthesia implies that patients had relatively more post operative complications. The differences in the complication index were statistically significant at 95% confidence level (t = 2.40, df = 69; ρ = 0.019).   The incremental cost effectiveness of this study was calculated as -1494. Adopting spinal anaesthesia in the treatment of BPH results is a reduction in costs and aversion of anaesthetic complications. Medics in Nakuru have favourable knowledge, skills and attitudes towards spinal anaesthesia. Factors that explain this are the least costs, aversion of complications and the ease of performing spinal anaesthesia. However, their usage of this technique was very low. Lack of spinal kits and the tradition of using general anaesthesia explain this low usage rates. Availing spinal kits and sensitizing medics on benefits of spinal anaesthesia might help in the uptake of spinal anaesthesia where indicated. 

Supervisors:     Dr. Andre Yitambe
        Dr. G.W. Odhiambo Otieno

MARY WANGARI IRUNGU (M.Ed), Educ. Psychology

ANALYSIS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING PROGRAMME AT THIKA HIGH SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND

Youth with visual impairments need guidance and counseling more than their sighted peers because in addition to the normal turmoil of adolescence, they experience other problems emanating from their disability. The purpose of this study was to analyze the guidance and counseling programme in Thika High School for the Blind. This is the only special residential secondary school for students with visual impairments in Kenya. The study looked at the content of the existing guidance and counseling programme. It identified problems faced by students and analyzed how the teacher counselor identified youth with specific problems and tried to solve those problems. It also tried to find out if the guidance and counseling personnel were adequately trained to handle youth with visual impairments, how supportive the administration, teachers and support staff were towards the guidance and counseling department and how responsive the students were towards the programme. The research adopted Erikson's psychoanalytic theory (1975), in which he divided the life cycle into eight stages of development. The main interest of this study was the fifth stage of Erikson's theory, "Identity versus Role Diffusion", under which adolescents fall. At adolescent stage children with visual impairments may experience a major crisis because many have faced rejection, negative attitudes and social stigma from family, peers and the society. The researcher adopted an observational descriptive survey design. A sample of 22 subjects comprising 16 students, 4 teachers, the deputy principal and the head of guidance and counseling department were selected through purposive sampling and simple random sampling. The study dealt with few numbers because of low incidence population among the girls who are totally blind in form 2N and 3N. Data were collected using questionnaires for students and teachers, an interview schedule for the deputy principal, unstructured interviews for students and observation checklists for human resources and physical facilities. The obtained data were analyzed through descriptive statistics in three stages: data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing. After analyzing data and drawing conclusions, the researcher made various recommendations including suggestions for further research in other areas of disabilities. The major finding of the study is the need to strengthen guidance and counseling services in Thika High School for the Blind. An attempt has been made to put guidance and counseling services in place but there is limited knowledge as to what is expected. There is no specific time set apart for individual guidance and counseling and very limited voluntary response of students to individual guidance and counseling services in the school. The study also found out that there had been no school-based in-service courses, workshops or seminars in guidance and counseling, organized for the members of the school. Due to these findings, the researcher recommended provision of skills through training, in-service courses and workshops in guidance and counseling. The department also needs more attention and financial support from the school administration and from the Ministry of Education.

Supervisors:    Dr. Franscisca I. Wamocho
        Dr. Haniel Gatumu



BEN OKINDO MIRANGA (M. Env. Sc), Environmetal Sciences

ENVIRONMENT AND ENERGY SOURCES: A STUDY OF DOMESTIC ENERGY CHOICES IN KASARANI, WESTLANDS AND MAKADARA DIVISIONS IN NAIROBI, KENYA.

This study was conducted on domestic energy choices in Makadara, Westlands and Kasarani divisions in Nairobi Province, Kenya, from the first week of September to December 2005.These areas were purposely selected because Nairobi is a cosmopolitan City with diverse human population of different socio-economic backgrounds. The objectives of the present research work were to determine the choices of domestic sources in selected neighborhoods, types of energy use and to monitor the effect of human environmental factor in the selection of household energy. Data collection was done using the household questionnaire which comprised both open ended and closed items and the household energy checklist. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The research findings are that income and education play a pivotal role in the choice of household energy. 5.5% of the respondents used kerosene as household energy for cooking and had primary level of education, while with secondary education 13.5% used kerosene, 20% used LPG and 3 % used charcoal; and with tertiary education 11.5% of respondents used kerosene and 46.5% of used LPG. 60% of the respondents considered the energy efficiency of the household energy before making the choice to use it, while 40% of the respondents did not, also 54% of the respondents used equipment and appliances in the households that conserved energy, while 46% of the respondents did not .From the research 64% of the respondents did not consider the environmental merits in making a choice for the household energy,36% of the  did consider. The Minister for Finance should lower taxes on all petroleum products and especially Liquefied Petroleum Gas and kerosene to make it affordable to the households. Awareness creation by the Ministry of Energy and its related agencies on use of household energy conserving appliances. The government should provide price subsidies in order to make household energy affordable for all. To promote renewable sources of energy such as solar to mitigate demand on energy types such as charcoal and wood fuel. The Ministry of Energy should lower the electricity tariffs to put less impact on forest and charcoal.  Findings of this study    will be   useful to plan for energy sources for the population of Kenya

Supervisors:    Prof. Michael K. Koech
        Prof. Shyam Manohar





NANCY WAIRIMU WACHIRA (M.Sc), Chemistry

ASSESSMENT OF THE USE OF IMMUNE-BOOSTING VITAMIN RICH FOOD SUPPLEMENTS ON PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV AND AIDS

The world health organization (WHO) estimates that 46 million people are infected with HIV. AIDS is a collection of symptoms and infections, which affects the immune function of people rendering them prone to opportunistic diseases. Thika District in Kenya comes only second after Kisumu with 34% prevalence of HIV/AIDS. The management of HIV/AIDS is through antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), nutrition and traditional medicine.  However, more emphasize is given on ARVs. An emerging therapy is nutrition. Foods rich in vitamins are readily available though actual levels on local varieties are not established. Changes in vitamins levels in blood correspond to the health of an individual including PLWA. AIDS reduces the levels and monitoring them determines the extent into which the disease progresses. The purpose of the study was to assess the levels of vitamins with consumption of food supplements and its effects in boosting the immune function of people living with AIDS (PLWA) and lowering their viral load. The study involved 66 eligible subjects (women and men aged 25-60 years) at Thika District Hospital, in Thika District of Kenya, which has been categorized among the most AIDS stricken area nationally. The study analyzed the content of β- carotene in some local foods and used those with high levels to feed PLWA while assessing their immune-boosting abilities. HPLC was used both in analyzing β-carotene, retinol and -tocopherol levels in whole blood of PLWA and food samples while flow cytometry was used in assessment of CD4 counts. The study realized that 42% of PLWA were consuming unbalanced diet mostly consisting of carbohydrates and starch. The mean CD4 counts for the study group was 212.0±0.5, 289.9±0.5 and 366.7±0.5 cells/ µl of blood at the on-set, mid-term and end-term of intervention period respectively indicating significant improvement. The blood vitamins concentrations of most subjects were found to increase with supplementation of the indigenous foods rich in immune boosting vitamins. For the control group, the mean CD4 count was 199.6±0.5, 192.8±0.5 and 176.2±0.5 cells/ µl of blood during the intervention period. At the end of intervention the study group had the retinol, β-carotene and -tocopherol blood levels increase by 2.3, 4.5 and 62.6 g/dL respectively. On the other hand, at the end of intervention the control group had β-carotene and -tocopherol blood levels decrease by 6.6 and 8.1g/dL respectively while retinol blood level increased by 0.6 g/dL. There was a positive correlation between levels of the vitamins in blood, CD4 counts and body mass index (BMI) at 95 confidence limit. This indicates that use of indigenous foods rich in immune boosting vitamins can improve the health and well-being of HIV/AIDS patients.

Supervisors:
Dr. Hudson Nyambaka                      
Dr. Jane Murungi
Dr Elizabeth Kuria




ELIZABETH MSE  (M.Sc.), Exercise, Recreation Sports Science

UTILIZATION TRENDS OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS BY MALE RUGBY PLAYERS IN THE 2006 SEASON OF KENYA CUP LEAGUE

Dietary or nutritional supplements are substances which act either nutritionally to reverse or prevent deficiency (multivitamins) or pharmacological to alter some process. This takes place through affecting the energy metabolism, affecting the central nervous system, increasing lean body mass or muscle mass, stimulating protein synthesis and reducing body fat content. Nutritional supplements are sometimes referred to as ergogenic aids since they are believed to enhance performance. A considerable number of elite, non-elite and recreational athletes have been reported having used a wide range of special foods and supplements. In spite of this, it is not yet established whether rugby players in Kenya utilize dietary (nutritional) supplements or not. The purpose of the present study was to establish demographic characteristics, determine the extent of the knowledge, to determine the consumption levels and identify factors that influence the utilization trends of dietary supplements by the Kenya Cup Rugby players of the 2006 season. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. This enabled the researcher to cover an extensive area and obtain as much information as possible. The factors under investigation were age, level of education, occupation, experience and club affiliation as independent variables while knowledge and consumption of supplements as well as reasons for taking supplements as dependant variables. The target population was 210 players from seven teams that participated in the Kenya Cup League. Simple random sampling was used to select 140 (67%) respondents out of the target population of 210. A validated questionnaire based on a five-point Likert scale was used to collect data. Descriptive statistics were used to describe players' demographic characteristics and their knowledge levels. Chi-square (x2) at 0.05 level of significance was used to test the hypotheses. Results showed that majority (78%) of the players were below the age of 25 years. The largest (65%) proportion of the players had attained tertiary/university level of education. Half (50%) of the players had been with their respective teams for a period of 3 – 6 years. The largest (71.1%) proportion of the players had played for the national team a duration of less than 2 years. Generally, rugby players had relatively little (creatine monohydrate – 44.9%, antioxidants – 11.3%, multivitamins 44.2%, glutamine 14%, whey protein 37.3% and ZMA – 8.6%) knowledge about  the dietary supplements. The results showed significant differences in the consumption of dietary supplements based on age, level of education, occupation, experience and club affiliation. All the six factors (taking, enjoying, not wanting to take, liking and not motivated to take dietary supplements) showed significant differences at 0.000. Similarly significant differences were also noted in the reasons for taking dietary supplements based on age, level of education, occupation, experience and club affiliation. All the five reasons (excel in sport, worthwhile and necessary, enjoyable and stimulating, not important and cannot afford a balanced diet) were found to influence rugby players' use of dietary supplements. Based on the findings, the following recommendations were suggested; the Kenya Rugby Football Union should organise clinics, courses, and seminars for rugby coaches and teachers regarding dietary supplementation, the technical benches of rugby clubs should incorporate nutritionists (dieticians) to guide players on the right dietary habits. Further research should be conducted on women rugby teams, other dietary supplements and variables apart from those investigated in the present study.

Supervisors :
Dr. Judith Kimiye Ph.D 
Dr. Njororai W.W. Simiyu  Ph.D



CHARITY W. MAINGI (M.P.H.)

SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AS A RISK FACTOR FOR STDs AND HIV AMONG WOMEN IN THE FISHING INDUSTRY ALONG LAKE VICTORIA BEACHES, IN KISUMU, KENYA.

Globally, women are 2.5 times more vulnerable to HIV than their counterparts. They account for about 59% of all adults living with HIV/AIDS. The presence of STDs can increase both the acquisition and transmission of HIV ten fold. The principal mode of STD and HIV transmission is heterosexual intercourse which accounts for more than 90% of all adolescents' and adults' HIV infections worldwide. In Kenya, Nyanza province had the highest prevalence (14%) of HIV and AIDS in 2005. Fishermen have high prevalence of STDs and HIV. Women working as small-scale fish traders, along the Lake Victoria beaches are most vulnerable to STDs and HIV as they are presumed to be involved in sexual networks with fishermen although documented data is lacking. There is therefore the need to determine the extent to which the sexual behavior of the beach women is a risk factor towards acquisition and/or transmission of STDs and HIV with the aim of supporting them to change their sexual behavior. This study aimed at describing the sexual behavior of the women working as fish traders. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 10 (30% of 32) randomly selected beaches. A sample of 503 women above 18 years was selected conveniently. Informed consent was obtained from the participants after explanation and clarification of the study objectives. Data was collected using structured behavioral interview-guide teleforms in face-to-face interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). The quantitative and qualitative data was analyzed using Statistical Programme for Social Scientists software (SPSS version 11.5). Chi-square test was used to test the relationship between independent and dependent variables with the help of cross-tabulations. Of all the respondents interviewed, 71.4% were either married or cohabiting, 74% were sexually active. About 3.6% had sexual relationships with multiple sexual partners; among them 78% had one other sexual partner while 22% had two other sexual partners; 72% never used condoms with multiple sexual partners. There was statistical significant association between multiple sexual relationships and respondents' marital status (χ2 =8.07;d.f.=3, p<0.05)and age(χ2 =8.905;d.f.=3, p<0.05). The majority of the respondents (72%) reported that their husbands were their regular sexual partners while 12% had casual partners and inheritors; 29% were in non-monogamous sexual relationships; 68.4% never used condoms with regular sexual partners. About 4.2% reported having been diagnosed with STDs within the month the study was conducted; of those with STDs, 0.2% had multiple sexual partners.  There was no statistically significant association between multiple sexual relationships and infection with STDs (χ2 =0.072; d.f. =1, p>0.05). It is therefore concluded that the sexual behavior of women working as small scale fish traders is a risk factor for acquisition and/or transmission of STDs and HIV. This could be contributing to high HIV prevalence rates in the area covered by the study. The Kenya government through the Ministry of Health should intensify health promotion campaigns and provide STDs and HIV prevention and control interventions.

Supervisors:    Dr. Isaac Mwanzo
Dr. B.M. Mwangi
Dr. Elizabeth A Bukusi



RUCHA, KENNETH KIBAARA (MPH)

FACTORS DETERMINING ACCESS AND UTILIZATION OF ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY STRATEGY BY PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV AND AIDS IN THIKA DISTRICT, CENTRAL PROVINCE, KENYA

HIV and AIDS is the most devastating epidemic of 21st Century; most countries especially in Sub-Saharan Africa are not coping with the epidemic. Current estimates put the figure of people infected with HIV and AIDS at about 45 million worldwide. A third of these cases occur in Sub-Saharan Africa. To deal with this ever-increasing problem the antiretroviral therapy strategy (ARV) has been introduced as a control to the increasing rates of morbidity and mortality. The major components of this strategy include ARV drug use, a balanced diet, healthy living and clean environmental sanitation. Access to utilization has however remained a challenge although very little data is available on the accessibility of ARV strategy in many Kenyan Districts. This study therefore aimed at providing information on the factors influencing accessibility and utilization of this strategy in Thika District. It was a cross-sectional study targeting about 1000 people living with HIV and AIDS and on antiretroviral strategy. A total of 390 respondents above 18 years of age were interviewed and data entered in excel for processing and management. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software (version 11.5). Chi-Square was used to test the relationship between independent and dependent variables with the help of cross-tabulations. The results showed that the main factors influencing accessibility included income levels, aspects of healthy living such as balanced diet, water quality and personal hygiene and access to ARV drugs and professional counseling. Of all the respondents interviewed, 84% had an income of less than Kshs. 10,000 while 57% had no regular income. The results showed that 42% of the respondents could not afford at least three balanced meals per day. There was significant association between income and major aspects of healthy living such as housing (χ2 = 46.597; df = 2; p<0.05) and dietary intake (χ2 = 28.381; df = 3; p<0.05). Significant statistical association was also observed between respondents' levels of education and aspects of personal hygiene (χ2 = 21.868; df = 3; p<0.05).It is therefore concluded that most respondents were unable to access and therefore could not utilize the strategy. It is therefore recommended that the Government of Kenya economically empower PLWHA on antiretroviral therapy strategy so that they can easily access and afford the therapy. It should also develop and implement national policy providing for ART drugs from lowest level facility such as the dispensary and intensify health promotion campaigns. This will not only improve the uptake of this strategy but also enable Kenya as a country to cope with HIV and AIDS and other related illnesses which is one of the millennium development goals.

Supervisors:    Dr. Michael Gicheru
        Dr. Benson Mwangi   




EDNA MAITHYA KATIWA (M.Sc), Exercise, Recreation &Sport Sciences

EFFICACY OF A PHYSICAL EXERCISE PROGRAMME ON THE STEREOTYPIC BEHAVIOUR AND RESPONSE AMONGST AUTISTIC CHILDREN AT THE NAIROBI AUTISM UNIT, KENYA

Autism is a developmental disorder, which is typically characterized by an inability to develop normal social relationships, compulsive and ritualistic behaviour and failure to develop normal intelligence. A characteristic feature commonly seen among people with autism is the abnormal stereotype behaviours. These behaviours engaged in at various times also inhibit the ability to learn or take part in activities appropriately. This study analysed the efficacy of using structured physical exercises as an intervention for managing stereotype behaviours in autism. The Nairobi Autism Unit for individuals with autism was purposively selected. All the 34 autistic children at the unit constituted the sample of the study. Quasi-experimental research using a single-group pre-test and post-test design was used with the experimental group (autistic children) being given treatment using structured physical exercises for a period of eleven weeks. The physical exercise circuit included warm up, flexibility, cardiovascular and endurance, muscle-strengthening and cool down activities. The adaptive exercise routine used structured teaching principles explained by Hong (2001) and Schopler, et al., (1995). The Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist was used as the main tool for collecting data. A pre-test was done during the first week of the school term to establish the children's behaviour levels in the different domains. This was followed by subsequent tests periodically, at 3 weeks and 4 weeks intervals up to a final test after the eleventh week. The dependent variables comprised those behaviours found in the ATEC evaluation checklist and included: Speech/ Language/ Communication, Sensory/ Cognitive awareness, Sociability and Health/ Physical behaviours. Age, gender and level of autism were the independent variables. The raw data was summarized using descriptive statistics. To test the hypotheses, dependent t-test was used where hypotheses were either rejected or not rejected at 0.05 alpha level. The results of the study were then presented in tables and charts. The results indicated that the structured physical exercises had a positive significant impact on all the four behaviour domains of children at the Nairobi Autism Unit. With regard to gender, age group and level of autism, the males, aged 8-12 and 13-17 years as well as those children with mild level autism did not improve significantly in speech/ language/ communication. The improvement of children aged 18 years and above was not significant in any of the behaviour variables. Structured physical exercise is thus recommended as a means to manage the challenging behaviour and enhance better health and wellness amongst individuals with autism. Creative methods for including physical exercises in the daily schedule for autistic individuals could be very beneficial. There is also a major task for curriculum planners to develop an appropriate Physical Education syllabus. Studies need to be carried out to establish the physical fitness levels of individuals with autism for the establishment of more specific programmes. Different populations with behavioral challenges should also be used as samples in physical exercise intervention other than individuals with

Supervisors :    Mwangi P. Wanderi
                          Dr. Njororai W.W. Simiyu



JOHN K. MUTUNGA (Ph.D), Environmental Sciences

SOCIO-ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF SMALLHOLDER FARMERS THROUGH COMMUNITY BASED TOURISM IN MERU SOUTH DISTRICT OF KENYA

Competing demands for livelihood support to the 80% of the Kenyan population dependent on agriculture and the national goal to steer economic growth have increasingly applied pressure, to the already strained sector, thanks to the few available alternatives.  Kenya is endowed with immense potential for conventional and other upcoming types of tourism, such as Community Based Tourism (CBT).  Like most of the other developing countries, Kenya is yet to exploit this potential.  The study therefore came in to evaluate whether people actually know about the existing potential for CBT, why it has been minimally utilized and elaborate how best such potential could be exploited for socio-economic empowerment of the smallholder farming community.  The overriding theoretical orientation applied in the study encompassed stakeholder interactions, promotion and development of social capital and sustainable utilization of available natural and cultural resources through mutually supportive action processes.  Though richly supportive, the available relevant literature fell short of explaining the phenomenal interactions between the bio-geophysical resources to bring forth mutual socio-economic empowerment at the community level, which therefore legitimized the principal focus of the investigation.  Meru South was chosen as a study district due to the presence of a rich mix of environmental and socio-cultural phenomena, which if adequately exploited could turn the resource poor majority smallholder farmers into socially and economically empowered individuals and groups.  The study was conducted in two phases; a qualitative pre-study phase which interviewed 75 public servants as key informants, selected through stratified random sampling at district, division and location levels of Meru South district.  The pre study data was collected by use of a researcher administered interview guide.  The detailed quantitative study covering eight randomly sampled locations out of the 24 habited ones in Meru South, reached to 400 smallholder farmers as the units of analyses of the study.  Smallholder farmers, half of whom were youth aged between 25 and 35 years, were reached out by use of a researcher administered standardized questionnaire/interview schedule.  The number of households to be visited was proportionately determined relative to the household population in each location, while specific households were systematically selected.  Data from the qualitative study was analyzed using the Non Numerical Data Indexing Searching and Theorizing (NUD*IST) programme, to collect related ideas and formulate broad clusters from which the study later on isolated a total of nine dependent variables. Those variables turned out to be of complex nature, in this study referred to as the drivers for socio-economic empowerment and therefore measured through indicators which ranged between five and nine. The study premised empowerment drivers as those that fuel the processes of attracting tourists, extending their stay and/or increasing the frequency of tourists' visits to a locality for improved socio-economic gain to the host community.  Data from the household survey was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS), as to generate inter rater reliability (Kappa coefficient) at the indicator level, then variability analysis by use of means, standard deviations, t-test as well as F-tests all measured at the theme level of the study.  Pearson's product moment coefficient was calculated to capture the presence, direction and the significance of the linear relationships between the core variables of the study, in line with the stated hypotheses.  Results indicate that besides being highly educated by the national standards, the Meru South smallholder farmers are also entrepreneurial in character as they practice other non-farm income generating activities, with group activity being one of the most important.  The two responder categories significantly agreed on most of the key tourists' resources available in the district, all the accruable benefits upon smallholder farmer participation in CBT, and some of the efforts towards utilization of the resources as the means that cumulatively lead to optimization of benefits from bio-geophysical resources relative to the first objective of the study.  The study established that the potential for CBT has not been exploited due to the varying levels of commitment of the smallholder farmers to tourism as measured through a variety of indicators, as well as the existing impediments towards exploitation of the same, in which case the two rater categories significantly agreed in most the indicators, thus responding to the second objective of the study.  Relative to the third objective, the study established that smallholder farmers could participate in CBT through strategic positioning to deliver the perceived tourists' preferences, utilization of their due diligence in packaging the venture relative to CBT facilitators and an overly adoption of the community based design and management options.  Kappa coefficient results were cross checked through inter group variability analyses at the theme level, which revealed high degrees of consistency relative to the t-test and F-test. Significant difference was however noted relative to countering impediments and utilization of the community based design and management options, which were specifically attributed to the locality and education levels mostly among the youth.  The four study hypotheses yielded credible information upon evaluation of the proposed relationships, which was in perfect conformity with the focus of the study.  The same process yielded four other key relationships which were worthy noting for evaluation in the future.  Results of the study and information from the literature review were used to develop a CBT interventional strategy that encompasses articulation, optimization and sustenance of benefits, as processes in enhancing smallholder farmer participation.  The study concludes that being entrepreneurial in character, the smallholder farming community would easily adopt CBT as an alternative income generating activity; through accountable joint venturing.  The community prioritized cultural tourism which appears consistent with the current preferential shift in the modernization path of the industry.  The study further concluded that community participation is socially constructed and all encompassing from the design, through the realization of the investment to sustaining the operations towards optimal social economic benefits.  Further on, the study concludes that optimization of benefits would heavily depend on the extent to which impediments to tourism are addressed, tourists' satisfaction is ensured and requisite marketing of the CBT as a product of the community's relative levels of knowledge of tourists' preferences is enhanced.  The study recommends further research to identify why impediments are so strong in hindering application of CBT, capture the changing demands in the tourism industry and recommends resolution mechanisms to the underlying impediments.  The study further recommends a comprehensive policy review to in-build flexibility for recognition and uptake of emerging tourism concerns and ensuring maintenance and preservation of the social commons.

Supervisors:    Prof. Daniel N. Mugendi
        Dr. Regina Karega


LIZE APONDI OJOWI (M.P.H.),

BARRIERS TO SAFE OBSTETRIC PRACTICES IN PREVENTION OF MOTHER TO CHILD HIV TRANSMISSION IN KIBERA SLUMS, NAIROBI, KENYA.

Mother to child transmission of HIV accounts for 90% of pediatric HIV/AIDS cases worldwide. Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) could curb the increasing rate of pediatric HIV/AIDS.  A substantial proportion of perinatally acquired HIV-1 infection occurs at or near delivery, which suggest that obstetrical factors have an important influence on transmission. PMTCT interventions should target appropriate management of HIV positive pregnant women, which could reduce transmission of HIV from mothers to their infants. Safer obstetrical practices available in the hospitals such as use of elective cesarean section have been shown to reduce the risk of transmission by 50% and by 80% when combined with antiretroviral therapy.  Access to these safe obstetric services remains a big problem in resource-constrained settings. This study assessed how level of income, level of knowledge on mother to child transmission of HIV (MTCT) and PMTCT, attitude of health workers as perceived by HIV positive mothers and adequacy of information given by health workers affected hospital delivery among HIV positive mothers involved in a community based PMTCT program in Kibera. A cross sectional study was carried out in which pre-tested questionnaires were administered to 146 HIV positive mothers in Kibera. Overall, 56.2 % delivered in the hospital while 43.8 % delivered out of the hospital. Traditional birth attendants assisted 28.8 % while friends and relatives assisted 11.6 % and 5.5 % were not assisted. 69.5 % knew of their HIV status when they were pregnant, while 30.5 % knew their HIV status before pregnancy. Bivariate analysis showed that level of income, level of knowledge and attitude of health workers towards HIV positive mothers were significantly associated with hospital delivery (p = 0.003, p = 0.008 and p = 0.024 respectively).  There was no significant association between being given information on ways of HIV transmission and prevention and hospital delivery (p = 0.142). Multivariate logistic regression showed that level of income was the most significant determinant and hence barrier to hospital delivery. These findings show that PMTCT programmes should focus more on addressing the financial barrier to accessing PMTCT services which includes hospital delivery. More education on ways and prevention of MTCT as well as the potential risks of home delivery should be given to HIV positive mothers. Emphasis should also be on giving adequate training to health workers aimed at improving their attitude towards HIV positive mothers.  Traditional birth attendants should also be integrated in the programmes because of the crucial role they play in obstetric care in this area. This is evidenced by the big percentage (28 %) of mothers who sought their assistance during delivery.

Supervisors:     Prof. Philip Owino
        B. M. Okello Agina



NYAKUNDI RUTH KERUBO (M.Sc) Biochemistry & Biotechnology
   
CHARACTERIZATION OF IMMUNOGLOBULIN G ANTIBODIES IN BABOONS INFECTED WITH SCHISTOSOMIASIS DURING VACCINATION AND CHEMOTHERAPY

Schistosomiasis, commonly known as bilharzia, is endemic in the tropics and subtropics in more than 76 countries where over 200 million people are infected and about 800 million at risk of infection. Currently, the leading control measure directed towards the reduction of morbidity and mortality is chemotherapy using Praziquantel. But with the rising problem of drug resistance and reinfection, the focus has shifted to the development of an effective vaccine. The radiation attenuated cercariae (RA) vaccine is the most effective vaccine to date (>70% protection in animal models) with protection levels associated with IgG antibodies. In the last few decades, there has been considerable research on the RA vaccine resulting in a thorough analysis of various parasitological and immunological parameters. However, in the field, the presence of a previous or ongoing infection in individuals may affect the efficacy of the vaccine due to shifts in immunological responses observed after treatment. This study therefore aimed at investigating the production of IgG antibodies to four antigens: schistosome egg antigen (SEA), egg-secreted protein preparation (ESP), egg-specific calcium-binding protein (SmE16), and soluble adult worm preparation (SWAP) in baboons (Papio anubis) vaccinated with the RA vaccine with a previous or ongoing infection. The relationship between the IgG and IgG1 levels and protection and the specific egg and adult worm proteins responsible for the IgG response were also examined. To determine the antibody levels, ELISA technique was used while SDS-PAGE and western blots were used to establish the IgG inducing proteins. Results showed a sharp increase in IgG responsiveness to SEA and ESP at week 8 and 12 post infection respectively and a slow build up of SWAP-IgG antibodies. During treatment there were no significant changes in anti-IgG response to the four antigens. On the other hand IgG levels in response to SEA, ESP and SWAP were sustained by the five vaccinations though by perfusion time only SEA and ESP levels were still elevated. Despite these levels, there was no correlation between SEA-IgG and ESP-IgG levels with protection while there was a positive correlation between protection and IgG-SWAP. With SmE16, there was no significant change in IgG levels in the three groups. IgG1 production against the antigens was lower than whole IgG with adult worm antigens stimulating higher responses than soluble egg antigens. Correlation analysis showed a positive relation between the IgG1 levels produced against the soluble egg and adult worm antigens and protection but not to egg-secreted antigens. The soluble egg proteins that stimulated IgG production were identified as having molecular weights of 14, 20, 23, 25, 30 and 45 kDa while the 45, 47, 67 and 97 kDa adult worm proteins were recognized during infection, chemotherapy and vaccination. Egg-specific protein was only recognized after probing with sera from treated animals. These results suggest that IgG and IgG1 antibodies play an important role in protecting animals with an ongoing or previous infection with stimulation from the adult worm antigens. It is also evident that egg antigens will always evoke a high immunological response despite low protection levels.

Supervisors:
Dr. Joseph Makumi
Dr. Thomas Kariuki
Dr. Joseph Ngeranwa



PETER CHEGE KIMANI (M.Sc), Biochemistry & Biotechnology

EVALUATION OF TRYPANOCIDAL ACTIVITY OF SELECTED MEDICINAL PLANTS IN KENYA AGAINST TRYPANOSOMA EVANSI

Typanosomiasis, a protozoan disease causes morbidity and death to humans and severely limits livestock production in endemic areas. It occurs predominantly in Africa, South America and Asia. Although Chemotherapy has been used to control the disease, cases of resistance have been reported and prospects of short-term vaccine development are remote. To address these challenges, herbal medicines have increasingly been used to control the disease in endemic areas. This study evaluated efficacy of selected indigenous plant extracts on T. evansi. Test extracts included Azadirachta indica (neem), Prunus africana, Bidens pilosa, Physalis peruviana, Senna didymobotyra and Croton megalocarpus. 96 well micro titer plates were used and trypanocidal activities evaluated in vitro by calculating minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of respective extracts. Safety of extracts was tested in mice (Swiss white) by evaluating parasitemia, clinical presentations and histological analysis of liver, Kidney, heart, lungs, muscle and brain tissue. Of the 27 extracts evaluated, chloroform extracts of Azadirachta indica leaves had the highest activity (minimum inhibitory concentration of 18.75 µg/ml). This extract was toxic to host cells in vivo at doses exceeding 500 mg/kilogram body weight and was associated with dyspnoea and lethargy. Histopathology showed damage to kidneys, lungs and liver. Because chloroform extracts of Azadirachta indica leaves performed better both in vitro and in vivo than suramin, a commercial trypanocide, future studies should address purification, structure elucidation and biochemical characteristic of active components of Azadirachta indica leaves. This study has confirmed the hypothesis that some Kenyan plants have trypanocidal potential

Supervisors:   
Dr.  Joseph J. Ngeranwa               
Dr. Daniel K. Masiga           
Prof. Peter K. Gathumbi



ANNCAROL W. KARANJA (M.Sc.), Plant & Microbial Sciences

IMPACT OF WASTEWATER DISCHARGE ON THE BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITY AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THOME RIVER, NAIROBI

Water pollution is one of the major problems facing many countries of the world. It may result from the discharge of various substances into water bodies in their catchment areas. Consequently the world experiences a number of water related problems including water scarcity and waterborne diseases. The city of Nairobi has experienced rapid industrialization and growth in population in the last 100 years. However, these have not been matched by development of infrastructure to deal with waste disposal. The unplanned disposal of garbage, human and industrial waste has resulted in increased pollution of water bodies. Against this background, a study aimed at determining the water quality of a section of Thome River passing through the city, was carried out between December 2004 and January 2006. The section of the river studied is located about 10 km from Nairobi city along Nairobi-Thika highway. It receives wastewater discharge from various sources. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the river water meets the recommended standards for watering livestock, recreational and irrigation of crops eaten raw. The study focused at determining the bacterial (faecal) status of the river water and measurement of selected physicochemical properties. Water samples for physico-chemical and bacteriological analyses were collected from five stations; Safari Park, Kasarani, Icipe, Sportsview and Warren along the stretch of the river and analyzed. The range in levels of the physico-chemical properties at all sites during the study period were as follows: water temperature, 18.1 to 27.3 ºC; pH, 6.6 to 8.1; DO, 0 to 10.8 mg L-1; total alkalinity, 25.0 to 298.0; BOD, 0.1 to 118.9 mg O2 L-1; and electrical conductivity, 160.0 to 496.0 µS cm-1. One way ANOVA tests revealed significant differences in levels of total alkalinity, electrical conductivity, and DO at different sampling sites (P<0.05, n=20). The water was found to be contaminated with faecal bacteria such as total coliforms, heterotrophic bacteria, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholera and faecal Streptococcus. There were significant differences in mean total coliform counts at different sampling sites (P<0.05, n=12). E. coli counts recorded during the study (6.7 x 10 3 to 4.9 x 10 4) were higher than WHO standards (0/ 100 ml). Vibrio cholera was present in 50.0 % of all water samples analyzed. Salmonella spp were detected in 29.0 % of all the water samples analyzed with Safari Park sampling site recording the lowest occurrence frequency (10.0 %). The highest frequency of occurrence for Shigella spp (35.0 %) was obtained during the dry season. Icipe sampling site had the highest E. coli counts (2.8 x 105 MPN/ 100 ml). The highest faecal Streptococcus density (4.0 x 10 MPN/ 100 ml) was recorded at Kasarani and Sportsview sampling sites several times during the study period. Based on the levels of bacterial indicators of faecal pollution, BOD concentration and DO levels, the river water at Kasarani, Icipe and Sportsview sampling sites is unfit for drinking, watering animals and irrigation of crops eaten raw. The water at Safari Park and Warren was less impacted. The results indicate that the Thome River water is polluted with domestic and agricultural and /or surface run off effluents. Corrective measures must be taken to stop the pollution of the river.

Supervisors:    Dr. K. Kotut
        Dr. N. M. Gitonga


SAMUEL N. NJATHI (M. Ed), (Educational Admin)

HEADTEACHERS AND TEACHERS' OPINIONS ON THE HIRING OF TEACHERS BY BOARDS OF GOVERNORS IN OL JORO OROK DIVISION, NYANDARUA DISTRICT, KENYA

This study specifically sought the headteachers' and teachers' opinions on recruitment of teachers by BoGs, selection of teachers by BoGs and identified problems that BoGs faced in the recruitment and selection of teachers. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. Stage sampling procedure was adopted for the sample selection. All the headteachers in the schools that were selected for the study and 40% of the teachers from each of the sampled schools were randomly sampled for the study. This yielded a total of 10 headteachers and 60 teachers which was 39 % of the total teacher population and 83% of the headteachers which translated to 43% of the entire target population. Two sets of questionnaires; one for headteachers and another for teachers were developed and used for data collection. Their reliability was established through a test re-test method. Data were analysed manually using descriptive statistics which included percentages, means and frequencies, and were presented in form of frequency tables. The results revealed that, though headteachers and teachers in Ol Joro Orok Division were all qualified as teachers, most (70%) of the headteachers had not been trained on Human Resource Development which covers the concepts of recruitment and selection of teachers and that the BoGs recruitment strategies in schools were not satisfactory. Consideration of candidates' age, interest in co-curricular activities and teaching experience were reported as unnecessary and that induction of BoGs' teachers' selection panel members was not adequate. The researcher recommended that headteachers/teachers and BoG members needed to be trained in Human Resource Development, schools should provide registers where the applicants who submit their applications should sign to avoid cases where the applicants with better/ higher qualifications than the favoured applicants were discarded and that other than advertisement through the local newspapers, other means/ channels of advertisement should be suggestions for further research, the researcher recommended that the study could be replicated in a wider area say, a province or in other parts of the country in a bid to compare findings and that a comparative study could be conducted to determine the difference in opinions of headteachers and teachers between the current mode of hiring of teachers and the earlier; mode where Teachers' Service Commission employed teachers directly.

Supervisors:    Dr. G.A Onyango
Prof. Jack G. Oketch


JOHN NJAGI MURIUKI (Ph.D), Environmental Sciences

THE POTENTIALS OF AGROFORESTRY IN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:  A CASE STUDY OF THE MT. KENYA REGION

A study on agroforestry systems in agro-ecological zones of the Mt. Kenya region that are suitable for tea and coffee growing was carried out with the aim of establishing their potential for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. Agroforestry systems and related socio-economics data was collected using questionnaires and conducting on-farm observations while, biodiversity data was obtained using descriptive vegetational and faunal survey methods in randomly selected farms in each zone.Validity of biodiversity data obtained was determined using the program EstimateS Ver. 7.5. Tree species diversity in different zones was determined using Shannon Diversity Index (SDI) while, Sorensen Index (SI) of similarity was used to compare coffee and tea agro-ecological zones in different districts for biodiversity. Chi-square tests were used to determine site selection tendencies by mammals, birds and herpetofauna within farm sites under different agroforestry practices while, Pearson Correlation was used to establish if relationships existed between agroforestry trees and farmland fauna. Results of the study showed that agroforestry systems in the Mt. Kenya region are largely agrisilvicultural, and are greatly influenced by prevailing socio-economic conditions. The results for species richness estimates showed that biodiversity data obtained on tree species, mammals, birds and herpetofauna had a completeness that was above 50% and was therefore reliable. Out of all agroforestry trees enumerated on farms, 67.4% were exotics while 32.6 % were indigenous, with 56.6% occurring in the tea zone and 43.4% in the coffee zone. Analysis of variance showed that there were no significant differences in the number of indigenous trees in the coffee and tea agro-ecological zones. Comparison of indigenous with exotic species for all zones showed that the indigenous species were more diverse (Shannon Diversity Index 19.99) than exotics (16.11). The Shannon Diversity Index values for agroforestry tree species (indigenous and exotic) were higher in tea zones (18.83) than coffee zones (16.96). Tea zones had also more mammals, birds and herpetofauna species. Kirinyaga tea zone had the highest diversity of agroforestry tree species in the region while Embu coffee zone was the least diverse for both indigenous and exotic species. The ordination of pairing the zones together showed that combinations with the highest SI percentage (i.e. greatest similarity) for agroforestry trees were the Nyeri coffee zone versus Meru tea zone, while combination of zones with the lowest similarity were Nyeri coffee zone versus Kirinyaga tea zone and also Kirinyaga coffee zone versus Kirinyaga tea zone. Sorenson's Similarity Index indicated that there was relatively more similarity in agroforestry trees and faunal biodiversity within a cropping zone than between the zones. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) test results indicated that the tea zones had significantly more mammals (F=7.094, sig.= 0.037), than coffee zones. Site selection tendencies for mammals were low (X2 = 20.75, d.f. = 11, P  < 0.005) for most sites, with over 50% of them occurring in farm sites under woodlots. Mammals species richness and abundance increased gradually from the coffee zone towards the tea zone. For birds, analysis of variance (ANOVA) test results revealed no significant differences (F= 0.801, sig.= 0.405) in the number of birds observed in the tea and coffee zones and that they had strong site selection tendencies (X2 =3.16), d.f. = 11, P  < 0.005), suggesting a high degree of specificity within agroforestry sites. A similar pattern was observed with herpetofauna. Pearson Correlation results showed that there was a significant positive correlation between the total number of trees and farmland mammals (r = 0.716, p = 0.05), birds (r = 0.705, p = 0.05) and herpetofauna (r = 0.846, p = 0.01) in the Mt. Kenya region. The study concludes that agroforestry has an ability to raise the capacity of farmlands to conserve more biodiversity. `Biodiversity conservation in farmlands however, need planning so as to determine the kind of bioversity  (flora and faunal) suitable for each area, and the kind of agroforestry system or tree species that biodiversity requires for long-term conservation and sustainability. This includes decisions on agroforestry trees to plant or retain, management or maintenance of structural and compositional diversity among other factors.  This in turn requires cooperation of landowners or farmers.

Supervisors:     Dr. James B. Kung'u
        Prof. Daniel N. Mugendi






   
MUKANGU GABRIEL MUTHIKE (M.Ed)

RESOURCE AND PEDAGOGICAL CONSTRAINTS TO TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES AT KERUGOYA SCHOOL FOR THE HEARING-IMPAIRED

The advent of the 8.4.4 system of education had Geography, History and Civics integrated to form Social studies (S.S) in primary schools. This implied that content, resources and methods of teaching the subject had to undergo some changes. This posed a problem to the teaching of S.S to the hearing-impaired (HI) pupils because resources and methods were to be adapted. This was further complicated by the variability of the HI pupils in Language and Communication difficulties. Parents of the HI pupils noted the poor performance in this subject.

The study was mainly concerned with resource and pedagogical constraints to teaching S.S at Kerugoya School for the H.I pupils in Kirinyaga district. The researcher investigated the S.S teaching methodology, learning resources, learning activities and methods teachers used to assess H.I pupils. A descriptive case study design was adopted to investigate the resource and pedagogical constraints encountered in the school. The study used  seven (7) S.S teachers and eighty (80) H.I pupils purposively selected in the upper primary school section. This was a total of eighty eight (48.35%) of the school population.

The data collecting instruments were researcher-made and included questionnaire, interview schedule and observation guideline. The result of correlation coefficient was 0.8 which was above the one set in the proposal at 0.7. The questionnaire for S.S teachers had twenty-three (23) items. The interview schedule also for the teachers had ten (10) items. It dealt with areas covered in the teachers' questionnaire to probe and counter-check information provided through the questionnaire. The pupils were mainly observed in the course of teaching/ learning process. The data collected was categorized, ordered, coded and then tabulated. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics where findings were presented using tables of frequency distributions and percentages. Results of the study revealed in part that teaching/ learning resources were available but inadequate. The S.S teachers in the school employed teacher-centred pedagogical approaches due to time constraint. Both S.S teachers and their H.I pupils encountered various constraints such as communication barriers, abstract content, wide S.S syllabus and limited time allocated for the teaching of the subject. Based on the findings, it is recommended that emphasis should be placed on pupil-centred methods which help pupils learn better as they interact with learning resources.

Supervisors:   
Dr. Michael Njoroge
Dr. Leo Odongo



NJERU JAMLICK MUTEGI (M.Sc), Plant & Microbial Sciences
INFLUENCE OF FISH POND FERTILIZATION MODE ON MICROBIOTA AT SAGANA FISH FARM, KIRINYAGA DISTRICT, KENYA
In order to stimulate growth of phytoplankton to serve as fish food, fish farming in Sagana is integrated with livestock and poultry keeping. Ponds are fertilized by use of fresh cattle manure, chicken manure or inorganic fertilizers. A cattle zero grazing unit has been constructed adjacent to the ponds while a chicken house has been put up above the ponds for direct discharge of fresh wastes into the ponds. The aim of this study was to investigate influence of different modes of fertilization on fish ponds. During the study presence of human disease causing bacteria were investigated. The physico-chemical properties of the different ponds were also investigated. Mean aerobic mesophilic colony counts (AMCC) in tilapia reared in the a chicken waste fertilized pond (Pond A2) and a cattle waste fertilized pond (Pond P2) were 8.2 x 107 CFU g-1 and 7.8 x 107 CFU g-1 respectively. Catfish from ponds A2 and P2 had mean AMCC of 7.8 x 107 and 6.1 x107 CFU g-1 in the same order. The two mode of fish pond fertilization produced fish with AMCC above accepted level set by the International Commission on Microbiological Specification for Food (ICMSF) of 106 CFU g-1. Mean coliform bacteria count in tilapia fish reared in pond A2 was 6.45 X 102 while in the catfish reared in pond P2 was 5.3 x 102 MPN g-1. These counts are above the accepted limit of 4 x 102 MPN g-1 by ICMSF. Aerobic plate count (APC) of the water samples from the ponds at 22oC and 37oC ranged from 1.4 x 103 to 1.8 x 105 CFU ml-1. The APC were above accepted levels of 10 and 100 CFU ml-1 according to Word Health Organization (WHO) and the European Union (EU) standards for drinking water respectively. Coliform and feacal coliforms counts range of 7.1 x 101 to 4.13 x 103 MPN/100 ml in the fish ponds water samples, were above 0 – 25/100 ml accepted for untreated water for drinking by American Public Health Association (APHA). Escherichia coli were detected in fish and pond water. Temperature and DO stratification was noted in the study ponds at around midday while isothermal and uniform levels of DO were recorded in ponds during the late night and early morning. Among the phytoplankton divisions, Chlorophyta and Cyanobacteria had the highest number of species in the three study ponds. A distinct temporal variation in biomass of the main phytoplankton divisions as well as the biomass of dominant species was noted in the study ponds. Tilapia from pond fertilized with inorganic fertilizers (B1) had a poor health status (Kn = 0.78). Although none of the investigated pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella, Shigella and Vibro cholerae) was detected in fish and pond water, this study recommends that fish from Sagana Integrated Fish Farm should be thoroughly cleaned with potable water to reduce high bacterial loads before human consumption. The study further recommends that pond fertilization with agricultural wastes should be controlled to avoid fish pond environmental changes that may be harmful to the survival of reared fish. Finally, test on other known waterborne animal feacal pathogens should be done in order to declare quality of fish from Sagana Fish Farm satisfactory.

Supervisors:
Dr. Nkanata Gitonga
Dr. Kiplagat Kotut


WANJIHIA  VIOLET WANJIKU (M.P.H.)

CONSUMPTION OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND THE RISK OF TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS AMONG A RURAL AND AN URBAN POPULATION IN KENYA

Background: Both the amount and quality of dietary fat may modify glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity.  A high fat content in the diet may result in deterioration of glucose tolerance by mechanisms like decreased binding of insulin to its receptors and consequently impaired glucose transport.  Our bodies need fat.  However, it must be the right kind.  O3FA are a form of polyunsaturated fats, Key 03FA includes eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA C 20,5) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA C22,6) both found primarily in fish, they are increasingly recognized as important to human health but it is not yet clear how beneficial they can be in averting the risk of T2DM.
Objective: to compare the risk of T2DM, in relation to 03FA (DHA & EPA) intake among a rural population whose traditional diet comprised of fish rich in Omega 3 Fatty Acids and an urban population whose diet evolved from a traditional one and can now be termed as “modern”.
Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional comparative survey.  The risk of T2DM was determined in a rural and an urban community in Kenya, by measuring factors such as Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT), Impaired Fasting Glucose (IFG) according to WHO diagnostic criteria.  Obesity was also measured via Body Mass Index.  The intake of 03FA (EPA & DHA) was determined using a 24 Hr, dietary recall that recorded the type and quantity of fish ingested.  A total of 623 subjects, 405 rural (185 men, 220 women) and 218 urban (125 men and 93 women) aged 20-60 were included in the study.  The rural population was drawn from Nyang'oma division of Bondo district and the urban population was drawn from Nairobi.  Data was analysed using SPSS and Nutri-Survey Program.  Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to test correlation between 03FA consumption and factors associated with the risk of T2DM.  The inter-group comparisons were performed by using an independent-sample t test and a one-way analysis of variance followed by Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
Results: The prevalence of IGT, IFG & BMI was found to be higher among the urban population, as well as among the females for both rural and urban populations.  There was also a significant positive correlation between age and prevalence of IGT (r= 0.204, p<0.05) & BMI (r= 0.174, p<0.05).  The difference between BMI levels among males and femalses was also very significant p=0.003, with a majority of the females presenting very high levels.  EPA & DHA were found to be consumed in the rural areas at a mean of 0.5964 and 0.0163 per day respectively and a mean of 0.1156 and 0.0137 respectively in the urban area.  There was a highly significant negative correlation between EPA & DHA consumption and factors related to the risk of T2DM like IGT, IFG and BMI.
The level of significance was considered at P<0.05.
Conclusion: There is evidence of a high inverse correlation between the factors associated with the risk of T2DM and consumption of 03FA.  The rural population who consumed a lot of 03FA, recorded lower levels of the risk factors, than the urbanites who had much lower consumption.
Recommendation: Effective screening methods should be used at the existing health units to determine IGT and IFG patients and advise them accordingly on lifestyle changes

Supervisors:    Prof. Judith N. Waudo
        Dr. Michael F. Otieno



MBOYA MARYGORETTY ODHOCH (M.P.H.) 

COMMUNITY COPING STRATEGIES TO HIV AND AIDS IN HOMABAY DISTRICT, KENYA

Most communities have developed a wide range of complex and innovative strategies to survive the adverse impacts of HIV. They have spontaneously joined to support and assist families and children affected by HIV and AIDS. Whereas these strategies are the least visible, they may be the most cost-effective and far-reaching. The aim of the study was to identify HIV and AIDS coping strategies among communities especially those with heavier burden; and to determine factors that hinder or enhance these strategies. A cross-sectional survey in Asego and Rangwe Divisions of Homabay District was undertaken and data collected from 302 respondents, a section of leaders, and small groups of community members; using interview schedules, focus group discussions (FGDs), and observation checklists. Homabay District has six Divisions; the Divisions of Asego and Rangwe were selected purposively. The Divisions were divided into four clusters, and Sub-locations or Locations selected by simple random sampling; and households selected by systematic random sampling. Data gathered was summarized using EpiData; then analyzed and presented using SPSS and Microsoft Excel in that order. The study identified coping strategies that communities of Homabay had adopted in the midst of the HIV outbreak as: treatment and care of the sick, orphans support, social groups, Income Generating Activities (IGAs), protection of property rights, changes in cultural practices, voluntary labour services, and uptake of Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT) services. Treatment and care of the sick was widespread. The findings showed that large proportion of respondents 248(82%) had cared for relative with prolonged illness. Orphans were many in the community, and a very large proportion of respondents 284(94%) had an orphan related to them. Programme activities of external agencies working in the communities and bolstering their coping strategies included: advocacy, infrastructure improvement, support to community initiatives and capacity building through training and seminars. Support to community initiatives and infrastructure improvement were the programme activities ranked first 92(37.5%) and second 83(33.5%) respectively by the respondents. They were endeared because their components tackled critical issues of the community such as health, water and education in a more direct and far-reaching manner. Almost all the coping strategies were influenced by perceptions. These included readiness to volunteer labour, discard certain cultural practices or participate in IGAs. This is a clear indication that communities in Homabay generally had respect and positive regard for their coping strategies. Certain coping strategies were influenced by socioeconomic factors such as education and source of income. It appeared that addressing broad social issues in communities would reduce the HIV burden. Recommendations from the study were that: the Ministry of Health should continue expanding or strengthening community home-based care services including addressing issues of sustainability, and that providing for physical and educational needs of orphans is best addressed by the government and partners through financial support to communities or households fostering orphans as opposed to setting up orphanages. These findings will inform policy on mitigation against socio-economic impact of HIV and AIDS in Kenya.

Supervisors:
Prof. Alloys S.S. Orago,
Dr. Wilson A. P. Otenga (PhD)






MUTINDA AGNES KASUSU (M.P.H.)

ORAL HEALTH EDUCATION AND PRACTICES AMONG COMMUNITY MEMBERS IN CENTRAL DIVISION, MACHAKOS DISTRICT

Although oral health problems are not life threatening, they are of public health concern globally due to their high prevalence, morbidity, general discomfort and negative efforts on the overall quality of life.  The under privileged and rural communities are the most affected in both developed and developing countries.  Poor distribution of oral health facilities, equipment and qualified personnel for the services have been implicated as some of the obstacles for people's acquisition of oral health services in Kenya.  The aim of this study was to examine Oral health education and practices among community members in Central Division of Machakos District.  Data for the study was drawn from a cross sectional survey of community members in Mumbuni and Mutinuni locations in April and May 2006.  The data was collected using pre-tested self-administered questionnaires and interviews.  Cluster sampling was used to select a sample of 391 respondents.  The collected data was cleaned, coded, scored, then entered into the computer and analyzed using SPSS Statistical package.  Descriptive statistics such as the mean, standard deviation range and percentages were worked out to describe data.  Pearson-Chi-square was used to test statistical associations between variables.  The variables considered were utilization of oral health services (visits to the dentist) as the (dependent) variable and oral hygiene practices, availability of oral health services, accessibility to oral health services, alternative treatment of oral health education (awareness) as the (independent) variables.  Level of significance was fixed at 0.05 (p=0.05).  The results of this study revealed that there was no relationship between distance from area of residence and visits to the dentists p>0.05 as the respondents were forced to seek health care by urgent health needs.  Further, a statistical significant difference was observed in tooth brushing habits among gnder and age groups as females observed better oral health care practices than males p<0.05 and the youngest group 15-24 years compared to other groups p<0.05 respectively.  Tooth brushing habits were personal, not significantly associated with visits to the dentists p>0.05.  Majority of the respondents (77.5%) brushed teeth using industrial toothbrush/chewing stick and paste which are considered as the correct tooth cleaning devices.  Oral health services were provided as 94% of the respondents were treated upon presentation to the dentist.  Majority of the respondents (61.9%) had never sought oral health care, which is a major requirement in prevention and early diagnosis of oral diseases.  Among those who never visited the dentist, (83.8%) believed they should only visit when they have oral health problems.  Urgent 'need' (85.3%) or when there were oral health problems was the main reason of visiting a dentist, as was in painful tooth (52%).  Most of the respondents presented themselves late, with advanced disease for treatment and tooth extraction (82.9%) was the treatment of choice.  Oral health education, which is mainly preventive, was poor among all age groups, as there was no significant difference observed p>0.05.  Only (30.4%) of the respondents had received various oral health messages mainly from teachers in schools.  This study recommends strengthening of oral health services in the study community by provision of trained manpower to teach oral health education and for early diagnosis of oral diseases.  The education should aim to motivate the individuals to self-oral health care.  The results of this study would greatly contribute in designing interventions geared towards change of people's attitude on utilization of oral health service

Supervisors:   
Dr. Michael F. Otieno
Dr. Faith W. Muli

SUSAN N NGUNU (M.Ed)

PSYCHOSOCIAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF ORPHANS IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN NAIROBI.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the psychosocial problems of orphans and their impact on the academic achievement. The population of study consisted of selected primary schools pupils from the informal settlements of Nairobi. The sample of the study was drawn from five primary schools. There were 84 orphans (40 boys, 44 girls) and 120 non-orphans (60 boys, 60 girls). It also comprised 10 teachers.

Three instruments were used to collect data, checklist for classification of psychosocial problems of school aged children; behavior rating scale and degree of incapacitation scale adopted from Orval (1976) and revised. A pilot study was conducted in order to validate the research instruments. Purposive sampling was done to select the 84-orphaned learners. Simple random sampling was done to select 120 non-orphaned learners. Ten class teachers were purposively sampled. Administration of the instruments to the subjects was done by the researcher with assistance of class teachers.

Data was analyzed using SPSS computer package. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Specifically Pearsons product moment correlation coefficients were used to test for significant correlations and t-tests were calculated in order to investigate significant differences between and among the variables of interest.

The major finding of this study was that the psychosocial problems of orphans affected their academic achievement. The orphans had more psychosocial problems than non-orphans. Orphans were also found to be having low scores in academic achievement. There existed a significant negative relationship between psychosocial problems and academic achievement (r = -0.163* at p<0.05)

Implications of these findings were presented as well as recommendations on both intervention measures that could be employed and further research.  Recommendations   were that the school should enhance the guidance and counseling department to help orphans have a healthy grief resolution. Teachers should also give remedial or extra instructions to the pupils with poor academic achievement to assist them attain their full cognitive abilities.

Supervisors:     Dr.Sammy Tumuti
         Haniel N. Gatumu                                             



BEATRICE SIMULI MUSEE (M.Sc), Foods, Nutritions & Dietetics                                                                                               

DIETARY PRACTICES AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF PRE-ADOLESCENT PUPILS ATTENDING PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN THIKA DISTRICT

Prevalence of malnutrition is common among school children. There is clear evidence that ill health and malnutrition adversely affect education. Simple health and nutrition intervention delivered through education system can improve education outcomes. Studies have shown both macronutrient and micronutrients deficiency in school children in Kenya. There is very little information available about the nutrition status of pre-adolescents whose growth rates are rapid and nutrient demands are high in preparation for adolescent stage. To curb deficiencies, it is vital for frequent dietary and nutrition status of pupils to be determined. This leads to determination of pupils' dietary practices, nutrition status, and the relationship between dietary practices and nutrition status of preadolescent pupils. Nutrition status is an important marker of overall health and linear growth. Retardation has serious long-term physiological and economic consequences. It is therefore important that factors influencing pupils' nutrition status be established.  A descriptive survey with cross sectional design study was carried out on a sample of 400 mixed primary school pupils aged 10-11 years in Thika District. Five schools were selected using simple random sampling method from public mixed day schools. In each school, eighty pupils aged 10-11 years were simple random sampled. Data was collected by structured questionnaire and observation. Pupils' social economic and demographic factors, anthropometrical measurement, observation list, 24-hour dietary recall, and food frequency were determined. The instruments were pre-tested. Demographic data collection was carried out. Quantitative data was analyzed by statistical package of social sciences (SPSS). Anthropometrical data was transformed to nutrition indices by use of EPI-INFO2000 computer software. Each pupil's Body Mass Index was determined too. The indices were compared to the National Center for health statistics (NCHS) reference norms. The 24-hour recall results were analylized by Nutri - survey package. This was then compared to RDAs to establish if there was adequate consumption. Qualitative data was analyzed by, summarizing and categorizing into themes. Chi-square was used to determine association between categorical variables. Pearson product moment correlation coefficient(r) was used to show the relationship between non-categorical variables. Consumption of protein was 28.5% below the recommended daily allowance while for vitamin C was 84.8% below RDA. Consumption of iron was 64.9% below RDA while consumption of the micronutrients, vitamins B6 and calcium was 4% and 79.7% below RDA respectively. This was caused by less consumption of foods that are rich in micronutrients. Overall prevalence of stunting and thinness was 24.25% and 23.5%, respectively. The prevalence of stunting and thinness decreased with those parents that had well-paying jobs. The paired t-test compared the means of the daily intake of the nutrients by gender, which revealed that there was a significant difference (p-value<0.05) with males having a higher mean intake as compared to their female counterparts. From the study, it can be concluded that there was a significant difference between the nutrition status of pupils aged 10-11 years old and the dietary practices. Pupils that received better dietary practices were healthier than those that didn't. The dietary practices, income earning of parents, and education level affected the nutrition status of pupils. Malnutrition was prevalent in most schools. Findings suggest the need for frequent assessment of nutrition status of pupils and determination of causal factors of malnutrition in schools countrywide.

Supervisors:
Dr. Elizabeth Kuria
Dr. Judith Kimiywe
                
                     
MARTIN NDONGA MATU (M.Sc), Biochemistry & Biotechnology

LACTOBACILLUS SPECIES COLONIZATION AFTER TREATMENT FOR BACTERIAL VAGINOSIS (BV) AND THEIR INHIBITORY POTENTIAL TO BV ASSOCIATED BACTERIA
                                            
Maintenance of a normal vaginal flora is important in the prevention of sexually transmitted infections including gonorrhoea and Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Lactobacillus species predominate a healthy vaginal flora and produce chemicals that are toxic to pathogenic microorganisms. Reduction in the number of Lactobacilli in the vagina result in bacterial vaginosis (BV) associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes including preterm birth, premature rupture of uterine membranes and amnionitis. BV is also associated with increased risk of acquisition of HIV. This condition is treated with antibiotics, although recurrence after treatment is common. Recurrence could be linked to vaginal hygiene practices, multiple sexual partners, and other sexually transmitted infections. Evidence also suggests that failure to establish normal flora following antimicrobial therapy contributes to the recurrence. The main objective of the study was characterise Lactobacillus species isolated from vaginal tracts of women following BV treatment and to document their inhibitory capacity against G. vaginalis, B. fragilis spp, P. bivia and Mobiluncus spp. Lactobacillus spp were isolated from women treated for BV two months earlier to determine the diversity of the Lactobacillus species recolonising the vagina post treatment. Lactobacilli were also tested for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production and their inhibitory potential to pathogens associated with BV. The organisms were identified by morphologically and by biochemicals. H2O2 production was determined using tetramethylbenzidine agar and inhibitory activity by a deferred antagonism well assay in which Lactobacilli suspension was inoculated into wells cut in agar to which Gadnerella vaginalis, Bacteroides fragilis, Prevotella bivia and Mobiluncus spp suspension was seeded. The prevalence of BV among the women tested was 38.3%. A wide diversity of Lactobacilli was identified with with L. jensenii being the most predominant Lactobacilli (18.4%). Thirty seven percent of the women were colonized by H2O2 producing Lactobacilli, and of these, majority with the H2O2 positive Lactobacilli had BV associated micro flora. When inhibitory potential of the Lactobacilli was tested, 23% were inhibitory to G. vaginalis, P. bivia and Mobiluncus spp. None of the Lactobacilli tested inhibited B. fragilis. Only about a third (37%) of the women were colonized with H2O2 positive Lactobacilli (LB). It was also observed that H2O2 positive LB were more inhibitory to indicator bacteria and therefore important in preventing growth of pathogens. Therefore, in a large proportion of women, H2O2 positive LB failed to recolonize following treatment and as a result remain unprotected from colonization with pathogens. In conclusion, the results f this study found that in spite of the Lactobacillus strains being capable of producing H2O2, acid and bacteriocins, not all strains producing each of these substances were inhibitory; for example, despite some strains producing H2O2 they were not inhibitory, some produced highly acidic culture supernatants yet they would not inhibit the indicator bacteria. Therefore the overall effect of these substances could be due to synergy among them. Based on the results of this study, management of BV using conventional antibiotics like metronidazole should be augmented by biotherapy using Lactobacilli producing inhibitory compounds to re-establish a normal vaginal microflora.

Supervisors:
Dr George O.  Orinda
Prof Eliud N.M. Njagi
Dr Elizabeth A.Bukusi


KAVOO AGNES MUMO (M.Sc), Biochemistry & Biotechnology

INTERACTION BETWEEN ORGANIC RESOURCE QUALITY, AGGREGATE TURNOVER, CARBON AND NITROGEN CYCLING IN THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF KENYA

Combined use of organic (OR) and mineral sources (MR) of nutrients is accepted as one of the most appropriate ways to address the problems of declining soil fertility and poor crop yields facing small-scale farming in sub-Saharan Africa. A field study was conducted at Embu in Central Kenya to investigate the effect of OR and MR management on aggregate turnover, C sequestration and N stabilization. The study comprised of ORs of differing quality; Tithonia diversifolia (high quality), Calliandra calothyrsus (medium quality), Zea mays stover (medium quality), Grevillea robusta sawdust (low quality) and farmyard manure applied at a rate of 4 ton C ha-1 with or without 120 kg N ha-1 mineral fertilizer. Soil organic matter (SOM) fractions from soils sampled from the top soil (0-15cm depth) at the establishment of the field trial in 2002 and before the long rains in 2005 were analyzed for C, N and C-13 signatures. All the data collected was analyzed with the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS and the means separated at (p< 0.05). The quality of ORs did not significantly affect the proportions of aggregates size classes. A significant positive interaction between OR and mineral fertilizer was observed on the sawdust treatment resulting in a higher proportion of large macroaggregates. There was a general increase in C and N for the soils amended with calliandra, stover and manure (for both combined and the sole applications) compared to the total C and N contents of the soils at the beginning of the trials. Higher concentrations of C and N were also observed in the microaggregate intra particulate organic matter (iPOM) compared to the macroaggregate iPOM indicating accumulation of SOM in the smaller aggregate classes. High and medium quality ORs (class I and II) had the highest C and N input into the SOM pool compared to low quality (class IV) ORs. This was indicated by the high C and N contents of small macroaggregate distinct SOM fractions as well as the more negative C-13 signatures observed within the macroaggregate and microaggregate free light fractions and iPOM fractions amended with high and medium quality ORs compared to the low quality ORs C, N and C-13 signatures. The knowledge generated in this study is therefore essential in devising soil management options that contribute to short-term plant production, C sequestration to mitigate increasing CO2, N retention to mitigate N losses and long-term soil fertility.
MILDRED SHIESHIA – ODWORI (M.P.H.)

AN  INVESTIGATION OF INFORMED CONSENT IN CLINICAL PRACTICE IN KENYA

Consent to medical treatment is considered essential in a doctor-patient relationship.  However, cases of breaches abound.  Informed consent involves the elements of information, comprehension and volition.  The information provided must be sufficient, understandable and there must be no coercion or undue influence in its procurement.  The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which informed consent is applied in clinical practice in Kenya.  Aga Khan University Hospital (private) and Kenyatta National Hospital (public) were purposively selected for the study.  The study sample consisted of 401 inpatients and 46 doctors drawn from the Surgical, Paediatric and Obstetrics and Gynecology departments.  Data was collected using a pre-tested interview schedule for patients and a semi-structured questionnaire for doctors.  The independent variables in the study were age, sex, marital status, occuation, income, languages spoken and education level.  The dependent variables were information, comprehension and volition.  The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to treat data.  Data was presented using graphs, pie charts, frequency tables and percentages.  The Pearson Chi Square test was used to test for relationships between variables.  The findings of the study showerd that the information provided to patients was not sufficient to procure informed consent since it focused mainly on diagnosis (82.8%).  There was a disparity in the responses of information provided on risks (patients 23.1%, doctors, 76.1%) and benefits (patients 31.1%, doctors 91.3%).  The Pearson Chi Square test was used to test for relationships between variables.  The findings of the study showed that the information provided to patients was not sufficient to procure informed consent since it focusssed mainly on diagnosis (82.7%).  There was a disparity in the responses of information provided on risks (patients 23.1%, doctors 76.1%) and benefits (patients 31.1%, doctors 91.3%).  The Pearson chi  square test showed a significant association between marital status and whether any information was provided or not (x2=8.569, df =1 p=0.003).  The oral method (words) was predominantly (80%) used to provide information to patients.  Although a majority (84.2%) of patients said they understood the information provided only 58.7% of the doctors' concurred.  The use of technical language was identified as a major barrier (patients 21%, doctors 33%) to comprehension.  The Pearson chi square test showed a significant association between maritual status and whether one asked questions on medical tratment or not (x2=14.633, df = 1, p=0.0001).  Although most (92%) patients provide consent coluntarily, 55.4% of the patients did not know they had an option to accept or decline treatment.  The Pearson Chi square test showed a significant association between volition and marital status (x2=7.702, df =1, p=0.0006).  The Pearson Chi square test also showed a significant association beween department and type of consent given (x2 =81.9, df =2, p=0.000). Written consent was more likely to be provided in the surgical department where invasive procedures are carried out.  The study concludes that information provided to patients prior to obtaining consent is insufficient, findings on comprehension are inconclusive and patients provide consent without coercion or undue influence.  The results of this study lead to the inexorable conclusion that although consent is obtained in clinical practice in the two hospitals under study, it is not informed and comprehensible.  The study recommends training of medical doctors on the art of communication in order to enhance the doctor-patient relationship.  It also recommends that the Ministry of helath enhance public education and awareness on medical rights and develop National guidelines for the process of obtaining informed consent.

Supervisors:   
Prof. Moni Wekesa
Dr. Andre Yitambe


ANNE WANJA KURIA: (M.Env. Sc) - Project

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF HABITAT TRANSFORMATION ON THE NAIROBI NATIONAL PARK AND KITENGELA ECOSYSTEM

Nairobi National Park's wildlife migratory and dispersal area (Kitengela) has over the last three decades undergone numerous changes from an open, communally owned wet season grazing area to heavily fragmented private property. New immigrants have introduced land uses that are incompatible with wildlife management. These include urban residential, industrial and commercial premises; and agricultural land uses. This research aimed at evaluating the drivers, trends and effects of habitat transformation on the Nairobi National Park and Kitengela ecosystem. The ultimate aim was to isolate policy and action entry points towards the ecosystem's effective management (use, care and improvement) for the common good. The research was based on the assumption that if the current trend of habitat transformation in Kitengela continues; Nairobi National Park will be reduced to an ecological island and will eventually “collapse”. The park will thus lose its value as a major tourist destination. Although various interventions are being employed in the area, the problem still persists. Primary data were collected using seasonal calendars, historical timelines, maps, direct observations, photography, questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews. Secondary data sources included journals, books, and other published reports. Stratified random sampling and Purposive sampling was used for sample selection. Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods were used. More specifically, descriptive statistics were used to summarise and interpret findings. Pearson Correlation Coefficient was applied to assess the relationship between selected variables under study. The study findings indicate that approximately 68% of Kitengela wildlife habitat has been transformed from communally to individually owned land. The main causes of habitat transformation were the rapid increase in human population in Kitengela, estimated to be growing at a rate of 3.8% per annum. There were also high rates of industrialization in the area. This has resulted to loss of Nairobi National Park's wildlife dispersal and migratory habitat and restricted movement of wildlife. This is because as human population increases in Kitengela, the land sizes have become smaller (r=-0.81, n=127, p=0.01). Decline in wildlife numbers was strongly related to decline in tourist visitation in Nairobi National Park from 1996 to 2006 (r=0.86, n=11, p=0.01). As a result, there were reduced national and community benefits accruing from wildlife tourism. About 60% of the entire Kitengela population felt that they had received some benefits accruing from Nairobi National Park's management. This study therefore recommends that wildlife conservation within the NNP and Kitengela ecosystem should be guided by a national land policy that designates zoned land use activities and recognizes biodiversity conservation as critical in sustainable environmental management and development. The success of this approach would require among others changes in institutional and environmental governance frameworks, promoting the use of economics and incentives, dealing with social and behavioural responses, and integrating indigenous systems into conventional scientific knowledge systems.

Supervisors:
Dr. Caleb Mireri
Dr. Fuchaka Waswa



LILLIAN MWIKALI ELIJAH (M.Env. Sc)

ASSESSMENT OF THE OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT AND SERVICE DELIVERY IN KIANDA, KIBERA SLUMS, NAIROBI

Despite the increasing slum population, the problem of infrastructure and service delivery remains largely unresolved in Kianda village, Kibera slums. This has led to increased human and environmental health risks. This research therefore sought to assess the opportunities and challenges of infrastructure development, basic service delivery and aesthetic enhancement in Kianda, focussing on several variables namely: housing, education, energy, playgrounds and roads, water, sanitation and waste management and health care facilities. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected using questionnaires, Interview schedules, Focused Group Discussions, field checklists and content analysis of secondary data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Pearson correlation coefficient was used in determining the emerging relationships between selected key variables. Results obtained showed that while households desired improved infrastructural development and service provision, they had poor housing structures, inadequate health care, education and water facilities, poor communication networks, low quality energy sources and inappropriate waste management systems. As a result, there were low levels of education attainment and high rates of school dropouts, water, air and soil pollution and consequently the impact of water borne diseases. Barriers to improved service delivery included poverty and lack of negotiating skills, poor slum policies and absentee landlords, corruption and unresponsive governing authorities. Households were noted to engage in survival mechanisms hazardous to human health such as disposing wastewater directly outside their houses (83%) and use of flying toilets (8%). Household practises hazardous to the environment included among others use of firewood and charcoal for cooking (81%), disposing wastewater in channels draining into Mutoine River (83%), and use of flying toilets (8%). Educated households engaged less in hazardous practises than in uneducated households. Likewise, higher income households engaged more in less hazardous practises than lower income households particularly the use of own latrines and ablution blocks. Both local and international organizations were providing several services in Kianda in the absence of the City Council, though none was involved in road network provision. There were few health care facilities in Kianda mostly private clinics. This, compounded with risk factors like unsafe water, poor sanitation and hygiene had contributed to the burden of water borne diseases. Reported cases of ill health included Malaria (39%), Typhoid (26%) and diarrhoea (35%). There fore, for service provision to improve in Kianda, awareness on the dangers of the households' survival mechanisms must be created. This had greatly been caused by the high poverty levels in the slum, which urgently calls for more focused urban poverty reduction policies. There is also the undisputed need to actualise tenure rights in the slum so as to give the households an incentive to negotiate for services from concerned urban authorities. A participatory slum-upgrading programme should also be emphasized, given the inclination of the global world towards participatory development.



ONONO PEREZ AYIEKO (MBA) – Project

DETERMINANTS OF ADOPTION OF ORGANIC MANURES IN URBAN VEGETABLE PRODUCTION  (A CASE STUDY OF MIGORI MUNICIPALITY)

This study was conducted to estimate the rate of adoption, and to identify and analyze factors determining adoption of organic manures among urban vegetable producers in Migori municipality. A household survey was conducted among 89 farm households between 10th and 14th of December 2007. A logit model was used to analyze the impacts and significance of age, gender, experience, extension, education, training, objective, land tenure, type of labour, membership in organization, off farm income and distance to main market, on probability of adoption.

Analysis of the data reveals adoption rate of 58.4 %. The estimation results of the logit model indicate that; training in aspects of organic manure use, age of household head, and college education, are significant in explaining the difference in adoption by the farmers. Although the impact of the other factors were found not significant at 5% and 10% levels of significance, the coefficient estimates indicate that extension, experience, subsistence production, tenure security and membership in farming organization increases probability of adoption, while hired labour and longer distances to main market reduces probability of adoption.

The study recommends that activities to enhance adoption of manure use in vegetable production in Migori municipality should put into consideration these factors in their design and implementation.

FLORENCE BENTA WERE (MBA) - Project

THE DETERMINANTS OF ACCESS TO FORMAL HEALTH CARE SERVICES IN KENYA

Kenya, like most developing countries, has concentrated on the enhancement of good health through the provision of either free or highly subsidized health care services.  Despite these strategies, a large percentage of ill individuals in Kenya have continued to rely on self-care or self-medication.  Since the propensity to utilize various forms of health care varies from one individual to another, the factors that may encourage the use of one form of health care provider or another constitute an area of interest.

This study has used individual characteristics and facility attributes to identify the factors which influence the choice of a formal health care provider in Kenya.  The study used a national representative household survey conducted in Kenya in 2003 and adopted a multinomial logit specification in its analysis.  The model was estimated using maximum likelihood estimation method.  Most of the variables had the expected directions of influence.

The results showed that education, attitude as influenced by the advice given by staff, attitude as influenced by employer/insurance requirement and treatment costs are important and had a negative effect in determining a shift between a health centre and a dispensary and also between a hospital and a health centre.  Even though age was also important, it had a positive effect in determining a shift between a health centre and a dispensary and also between a hospital and a health centre.  On the other hand, gender, education and attitude as influenced by the cleanliness of a facility were found to be important and had a negative effect in determining a shift between a hospital and a dispensary whereas attitude as influenced by advice given by staff, attitude as influenced by staffs qualification, attitude as influenced by employer/insurance requirement, waiting time and treatment cost were also important but had positive effects.      


MWIATHI PETER SILAS (MBA) – Project

FACTORS AFFECTING ADOPTION OF ORGANIC FARMING BY MAIZE FARMERS IN MERU SOUTH DISTRICT

Organic farming of which Stover, trash and farm composite are components, offers considerable promise for increasing food production in Kenya. It nonetheless remains unclear whether, organic farming techniques lend themselves easily to adoption by small-scale farmers. And if so, why do some farmers adopt organic farming while others fail to adopt?

Using survey data collected from 119 households in Meru-South District, this study investigated factors that influence adoption of organic farming by small-scale maize farmers. A structured interview schedule was used to collect data on the socio-economic characteristics and the institutional factors affecting adoption of organic farming. The data collected was analyzed using econometric software known as Statistical Program for Social Scientists (SPSS). Both descriptive and regression results of the logit model are presented.

The farmers reported several constraints to adoption of organic farming, including inadequate knowledge, lack of market for organic products, inadequate market information, labour availability and expensive certification process. Conventional farmers reported uncertainty about the supply chain (market for organic product), strict certification procedure and reduced yield as the most important reasons for not converting to organic farming

Major factors associated with adoption included farm size, awareness, social capital proxied by membership to farmer association, household size, farmer experience and ecological zones. These findings raise important questions as to whether organic farming techniques are really affordable to smallholders. To spur adoption, it is recommended that the government should come up with policy decisions and legislate organic laws that favour organic farming, while training activities should develop further into marketing, processing and certification of organic products. Extension messages should be focused on younger less experienced farmers and women who are more likely to adopt organic farming practices.


GATHIIRA TITUS GITHAIGA (MBA – HR) – Project

BOARD OF GOVERNORS' EFFECTIVENESS IN TEACHERS' RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS: A CASE OF MURANG'A NORTH DISTRICT, KENYA

The continued use of Board of Governors (BoGs) in public secondary schools of Kenya to recruit and select teachers on behalf of the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) has elicited a lot of controversy.  The purpose of the study was to assess the effectiveness of BoGs in recruitment and selection of public secondary school teachers in Murang'a North District, Central Province, Kenya. The objectives included determining how BoGs effectiveness is affected by TSC selection guidelines; BoGs briefings and interview methods; stakeholders' interests, and applicants' characteristics. The study sample consisted of 40 respondents drawn from principals and teachers recruited by BoGs. Sampling of schools was done using stratified and simple random samplings. Data was generated using two different questionnaires, one for principals and the other for recruited teachers. 3 Principals (one from each school stratum) were purposively selected and interviewed using a structured interview guide for triangulation purposes. The research findings were analyzed using statistical package of social sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics namely, frequency and percentages were used to describe variables for quantitative data. For qualitative data, detailed narrative forms were used to summarize the information

The study established that; TSC selection guidelines made the BoGs more effective in teachers' selection. The BoGs lacked training in selection, were easily manipulated and hence incompetent. Teachers' selection was influenced by stakeholders' vested interests; tribalism and regionalism being the main ones. The researcher recommended that; Decentralization of teacher recruitment and selection be done at provincial level. TSC should set up a database for all qualified unemployed teachers, implement succession management, and ensure that head teachers of learning institutions have at least a certificate in Human Resource Management.


DAVID MBITHE DORCUS  (Ph.D), Foods, Nutrition & Dietetics

PROMOTING NUTRITION EDUCATION INTERVENTIONS IN RURAL AND URBAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN MACHAKOS DISTRICT, KENYA

Although food shortage may be a leading cause of malnutrition, nutrition education interventions have proved to be equally important in addressing malnutrition. However, nutrition has to be taught in an enabling environment such as schools using available resources such as school gardens. Despite its importance, the level of nutrition knowledge among primary school children in Kenya may require improvement. This is because the coverage of nutrition in syllabus has been taking a downward trend since independence and resources such as school gardens are not actively used. This study was designed to address the gap in nutrition knowledge among school children by using school gardens to teach nutrition to primary school pupils in Iveti zone, Kathiani Division, Machakos District, a district that has reported high levels of food insecurity, malnutrition and school drop-out. A baseline survey was conducted in 15 out of 23 schools in the zone with each school having an average pupil population of 300 and 8 teachers. The sample size for the baseline survey was 350 pupils, 30 class teachers and 15 head teachers. Four primary schools out of the 15 were purposively chosen for the intervention. Two experimental and 2 control schools were selected from a rural and urban set-up. Structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, observations, pre-tests and post-tests and existing records were used to collect data from pupils, teachers and parents. The collected data was analysed by SPSS and Nutri-Survey computer packages using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Results from the intervention showed significant improvement in nutrition knowledge among pupils in experimental rural and urban schools compared to control schools. Results also showed an improvement in nutritional status among pupils. Underweight, stunting and wasting levels before the intervention were 14.5%, 28.9% and 3.9% respectively while results after the intervention showed 11.8%, 21% and 2.6% as the levels for underweight, stunting and wasting respectively. These differences were however not significant. Results further show a reduction in the level of malnutrition among pupils in control rural and urban schools. There was also improvement in practices in both rural and experimental schools that encouraged nutritious habits. These included food production, selection, preparation, consumption, preservation and sanitation. Pupils from experimental schools transferred information and skills learnt at school to the community. The intervention activities enabled the researcher come up with a module that can be vetted, pre-tested and adopted for use in similar interventions and to strengthen the teaching of nutrition education.

Supervisors:
Dr. Judith Kimiywe
Prof. Judith Waudo
Dr. John Aluko Orodho


AYIRO PETER LABAN (Ph.D), Enterpreneurship

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN HIV/AIDS MANAGEMENT ACROSS THE EDUCATION SECTOR IN KENYA

HIV/AIDS is draining the supply of education, eroding its quality, weakening demand and access, drying up countries' pools of skilled workers, and increasing sector costs, already high in relation to available public resources. Despite the many efforts to fight AIDS and the rising awareness of the disease, the epidemic continues to claim lives while imposing heavy costs on the education sector in particular and the Kenyan economy as a whole.  The most urgent need of all is, therefore, to understand the process of managing the response to HIV/AIDS, of moving beyond identifying the problems and applying strategic planning. Implementation of effective anti-AIDS initiatives in the education sector has been inadequate hence the need for different management approaches in the impact mitigation process. The study therefore takes cognisance of entrepreneurial variables that in other studies have been shown to enhance organizational outcomes and which can be applicable in the mitigation of the impact of HIV/AIDS on the education sector. The purpose of the study was to establish “role of social entrepreneurship in HIV/AIDS management” concerning which very little research has been done. The population of the study was derived from managers of HIV/AIDS activities in the education sector nationally, and the respondents were obtained through stratified, random and purposive sampling techniques. The study adopted a cross sectional survey design; descriptive statistics were used to analyse all demographic variables so as to appropriately describe and summarize the data sample; regression analysis was done to investigate the relationship between the overall entrepreneurial practices, as measured by the Corporate Entrepreneurship Assessment Instrument (CEAI) and measures of management reinforcement practices and entrepreneurial behaviour exhibited by those involved in HIV/AIDS mitigation in the education sector. From the results, it is evident that the attributes that foster entrepreneurial behaviour are not embraced by organizations engaged in the mitigation of HIV/AIDS in the education sector. The main conclusions were that the existing administration practices were less effective and that is why limited entrepreneurial management practices existed in the sample organizations. The key recommendation was that organizations dealing with HIV/AIDS management response should configure organizational management structures and put in place strategies that are innovative and business-like. Considering the complexity of managing the response to HIV/AIDS in terms of resource mobilization, coordination, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of these activities, a hybrid between private, non profit and public sectors has to be adopted under the framework of social entrepreneurship. The resultant framework presents key actions required for a comprehensive and sustainable programme of response and mitigation.
 
Supervisors:
Dr. Mary Namusonge
Dr. Mark Ogutu

BURUGU MARION WARIGIA (Ph.D) Biochemistry & Biotechnology

GENETIC DIFFERENTIATION, VECTOR COMPETENCE TO DENGUE 2 VIRUSES AND HOST PREFERENCE OF COASTAL AND INLAND AEDES AEGYPTI POPULATIONS FROM KENYA

The mosquito, Aedes aegypti is the main vector of dengue viruses responsible for millions of dengue fever and hundred of thousands of dengue hemorrhagic fever cases annually in tropical regions of the world. At the Kenyan coast, dengue incidences continue to be reported while inland, the disease is not documented. Since Aedes aegypti is widely distributed in Kenya, characterization of patterns of gene flow and genetic differentiation between Ae. Aegypti populations from these regions wa necessary.  Additionally, the vector competence of these populations and their bloodmeal host preferences, which influence disease epidemiology need to be established before implementation of any control strategy.  A hierarchical population genetic study was conducted among 30 Aedes aegypti populations from coast and inland parts of Kenya.  Single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis was used to examine genetic variation in a 389 – base pair region of the NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 mitochondrial DNA gene (ND4).  Vector competence to dengue 2 viruses was examined using immunofluorescence procedure and host-feeding preference determined using enzyme linked immunoabsorbent assay technique.   Fourteen haplotypes were identified from a total of 1005 individual Ae. aegypti.  Phylogenetic analysis of these haplotypes indicated two maternal lineages.  Gene flow estimates demonstrated that coastal populations were relatively panmictic implying that dispersal in search for oviposition sites and human activities are factors that shaped the genetic structure in this area. Inland populations exhibited relatively restricted gene flow especially between seasons (Nm <1), reflecting possible bottleneck effects between seasons.   There was no barrier to gene flow and human movement may be contributing significantly to the observed levels of gene flow. Aedes aegypti from coast region were more susceptible to dengue 2 viruses (19.05 – 77.7 % infection rates) than those of inland region (10.26 – 46.2 %), however, this difference in infection rates was not statistically significant (X2 = 1.3659, p>0.05).  Restricted gene flow and low infection rates of the inland collections may explain why there has been no documented outbreak or incidence of dengue viruses circulating at the inland region. A total of 147 individual mosquitoes were positive for different antisera, 65.3 % of which had fed on human as a single host.  Mixed feeding was recorded in 19.04 % of the individuals, (89.28 %) with both humans and baboon blood. Overall, human blood index was 84.82 %.  This shows that Ae. aegypti has high preference for human blood more than other hosts even in the presence of other hosts indicating the anthropophilic nature of this species. Overall low genetic diversity in ND4 gene in coastal and inland Kenya Aedes aegypti populations was demonstrated suggesting that these populations could be more ancestral in nature and have not undergone a major evolution over the years.

Supervisors:
Dr. Eucharia Kenya   
Dr. Rosemary Sang
Dr. Luna Kamau

MUTURI MARGARET WANGUI (Ph.D)Biochemistry & Biotechnology
DETERMINATION OF CD8+T-CELL RESPONSES IN A HIGH RISK HIV NEGATIVE POPULATION

Naturally acquired cellular immunity in individuals who have been exposed to HIV-1 but have remained uninfected may hold clues for the design of an effective HIV vaccine. IFN-? Elispot has emerged as one of the widely used assay to monitor HIV-specific immune responses. It is becoming the assay of choice for evaluation of HIV-vaccine-induced cell-mediated immune responses in many clinical trials. The objective of this study was to investigate the CTL responses of high risk HIV seronegative individuals to HIV A and RENTA vaccine peptides. The study further sought to investigate whether it was possible to recruit, sample, counsel and follow-up a cohort of high risk seronegative volunteers over a duration time in preparation for vaccine trials.  To achieve these objectives, 30 volunteers filled a questionnaire, were counseled, tested for HIV status, recruited and enrolled in a 15 month study. The thirty exposed seronegative (ES) volunteers reported frequent unprotected sex with people of unknown HIV-1 status at enrollment. Every 3 months the volunteers were seen at the KAVI Kangemi clinic where blood samples were taken for the determination of the CTL responses, their HIV status was re-checked, filled questionnaire to assess the changes in their risky sexual behaviour.  It was possible to recruit and follow-up the 30 volunteers for the entire duration of the study.  All the thirty samples did not show HIV-1 specific T cell responses to both RENTA and HIV-A peptides using the ex vivo Elispot assay during the four time points (months 0, 3, 6 and 9).  To investigate whether these results were truly negative, samples from 5 seronegative discordant couples were used.  There were no HIV-1 specific CD8+ IFN-? T cell responses in the HIV negative spouse.  To investigate whether the ex vivo Elispot was unable to detect the responses, cultured Elispot assay was applied to the samples. They all tested positive with variations between peptide pools and individuals.  The fact that cultured Elispot detected the responses from the 5 seronegative spouses of HIV infected partners and from 12 of the thirty means that the ex vivo Elispot assay was not sensitive enough to detect responses to the tested vaccine peptides.  Cultured Elispot expands the memory CTL thus enhancing the detection of the responses. Using this method it was possible to demonstrate that HIV-1 specific CD8+ IFN-? T cell responses exist in high risk exposed seronegative individuals. Pool 90 gave positive responses with all the samples. It would appear that combining the pools of peptides would elicit consistent CD8+ IFN-? T cell responses and therefore make a better vaccine candidate. The results suggest that there is need to exercise very stringent criteria for enrolling high risk exposed seronegative participants to any study group  meant to investigate immunological parameters related to HIV exposure.
 
Supervisors:
Dr Charity Gichuki
Prof Omu Anzala

MILDRED PAULINE OYUGI-NAWIRI (Ph.D) Chemistry

EFFECTS OF DEHYDRATION OF DARK-GREEN, LEAFY VEGETABLES ON BIOAVAILABILITY AND BIOCONVERSION OF SERUM BETA-CAROTENE AMONG PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

Vitamin A, an essential micronutrient has its deficiency remaining as a major public health problem in developing countries.  The deficiency is caused by insufficient intake of foods rich in Vitamin A or pro-vitamin A carotenoids and its prevalence contributes substantially to morbidity and mortality among children.  Carotenoids, with B-carotene as the primary pro-vitamin carotenoid in dark green leafy vegetables (DGLVs) are important for their various biological functions.  The DGLVs are season dependent but can be preserved by dehydration to ensure their availability during the dry seasons to reduce cases of the deficiency.  The B-carotene content and retinal (Vitamin A) in serum of preschool children after consumption of dehydrated  cowpeas and amaranthus leaves were quantified.  Preschool children (study subjects) were involved in a 13-week intervention period.  Extracts from vegetable and serum samples were analysed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography.  Elution was performed isocratically with systems of methanol:dichloromethane:water (79:18:3, V:v:v), methanol:dichloromethane:water (83:15:2, v:v:v) and acetonitrile:water (85:15, v:v) for vegetable samples, serum B-carotene (S-BC) and serum retinal (S-R) analysis respectively.  Fresh blanched vegetable leaves, contained high levels of the all-trans B-carotene; 779-827 ug/g DM for cowpeas and 553-639ug/g DM for amaranthus.  Although they reduced with dehydration and cooking, retentions for B-carotene were over 50% after dehydration and cooking.  Thus, receipts provided sufficient amounts of retinal equivalents (RE)/day from both fresh and sun-dried vegetables to  meet the recommended daily allowances for the study subjects.  Serum beta-carotene concentrations were found to be within the normal range at baseline and increased significantly post-interventional for both study groups (p<0.000, df = 110, for fresh vegetable group and p<0.000, de = 38 for dehydrated vegetable group.  There was a negative correlation between baseline S-BC and change in S-BC for study subjects.  However,  the increase in S-BC of subjects in the fresh vegetable group was higher as compared to those of the sun-dried group.  Although the control group for the fresh vegetable study group had an increase in S-BC, that of the dehydrated group had a decrease, but these changes were not statistically significant.  The subjects in the fresh and dehydrated vegetable groups had marginally lower S-R concentrations at baseline but there was significant changes after intervention (p<0.000, df = 110, for fresh vegetable and p<0.000, df = 38 for dehydrated group).  McNemars chi-square tests showed that at baseline, 55% and 70% of study subjects in the fresh and dehydrated vegetable study groups respectively had low S-R concentrations with the percentages reducing to 36% and 30% respectively post-intervention.  Correlation analysis was negative between the baseline S-R and change in S-R for subjects in both the study and control groups.  While data from individual subjects support the homeostatic regulation of vitamin A improved the bio-availability of beta-carotene and bioconversion of beta-carotene to retinal.  The findings contribute to the link between increased consumption of carotenoids from DGLVs and bio-availability of the same.

Supervisors:
Dr. Hudson Nyambaka
Dr. Jane I. Murungi


MICHAEL KIRWA KORIR (Ph.D), Enterpreneurship

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG SMALL ENTERPRISE OWNERS IN ELDORET MUNICIPALITY, KENYA

The role of culture and social factors on the development of entrepreneurship is an emerging theme of research but results remain ubiquitous.  Others have concluded that an individualistic culture fosters entrepreneurial behaviour while collectivist culture retards them.  Others have argued that culture and socialization process not have any bearing on entrepreneurial behaviour.  Besides, empirical studies that forge these propositions in an African setting, and specifically in Kenya, are scanty.   This study examined cultural and social determinants of entrepreneurial behaviour among small-scale entrepreneurs within Eldoret Municipality in Kenya.  It anchored on hypotheses that relate several cultural and social factors to the development of entrepreneurial mindset, motives and orientations as components of entrepreneurial behaviour process. The study employed a triangulation of descriptive and explanatory designs.  Using cluster, simple random and systematic sampling techniques with the support of key informant interviews, a cross-sectional survey of 387 entrepreneurs running small businesses within Eldoret Municipality was conducted.  A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect primary data.  Data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical tools.  Specifically, factor analysis was used to validate and construct indices for the preconceived variables while Analysis of Variance and Structural Equation Modelling in the form of Path analysis were utilized to test hypotheses.  Theory testing results show that the Hofstede's cultural value dimensions remains conceptually valid, albeit explaining a small proportion of variance (38.4%); thus suggesting some extension.  Similarly, the 'Push-Pull” theory of entrepreneurial motives (57.37% of variance explained) and the Entrepreneurial Orientations model (48.0% of variance explained) remain valid in explaining entrepreneurial behaviour in an African developing country context.  Results of hypothesis testing indicate the entrepreneurs from the six referenced ethnic groups exhibited (p<.05) varying degrees in business start-up motives variables and propensity to employ, but generally displayed similar post start-up orientations.  Other significant (p<.05) socio-micro factors that were found to have moderating effects on entrepreneurial behaviour include level of education, gender, religion, parental occupation, age and marital status.  Paradoxically findings from Structural Equation Models show a positive but not significant causal relationship between cultural value dimensions and business start-up motives but a negative casual relationship between cultural value dimension and post start-up orientations.  Specifically, cultural value dimensions of Collectivism, Long-term orientation and Orthodoxy appear to impede entrepreneurial behaviour.  While the presence of role models was found to have a positive effect on all the stages of entrepreneurial behaviour process, the bonding dimensions of social capital seem to impede its development.  These findings hold implications for the intensification of entrepreneurship education and training, mooting of entrepreneurship policies that target the youth, retiring and women groups, more involvement of religious organization in entrepreneurship development, and a call for cultural and social transformation, if the goal of building an entrepreneurial economy and culture in Kenya is to be realized.  Future research should explore more linkages between culture and entrepreneurship using longitudinal research designs.  The validation of measurement tools and use of case approach in exploring effects of role models is also open for further research.

Supervisors:     Prof. Peter Kibas
        Dr. Thomas F.N. Thoruwa
      
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